Napoleon For Dummies E-Book

J. David Markham

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 614

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Explains his influence on the military, law, politics, and religion Get the real story of Napoleon Bonaparte Not sure what's true about Napoleon? This easy-to-follow guide gets past the stereotypes and introduces you to this extraordinary man's beginnings, accomplishments, and famous romances. It traces Napoleon's rise from Corsican military cadet to Emperor of the French, chronicles his military campaigns, explains the mistakes that led to his removal from power, and explores his lasting impact on Europe and the world. Discover * How Napoleon built -- and lost -- an empire * The forces that influenced him * Why he created the Napoleonic Code * The inside story on Josephine * How he helped shape modern-day Europe

Leseprobe

Napoleon For Dummies

by J. David Markham

Napoleon For Dummies®

Published byWiley Publishing, Inc.111 River St.Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774www.wiley.com

Copyright © 2009 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana

Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana

Published simultaneously in Canada

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ISBN-13: 978-0-7645-9798-5

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Manufactured in the United States of America

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About the Author

J. David Markham is an internationally acclaimed historian and Napoleonic scholar. His major books include Napoleon’s Road to Glory: Triumphs, Defeats and Immortality (winner of the 2004 Napoleonic Society of America Literary Award); Imperial Glory: The Bulletins of Napoleon’s Grande Armée (winner of the International Napoleonic Society’s 2003 President’s Choice Award); and Napoleon and Dr. Verling on St. Helena. He has been featured on the History Channel International’s Global View program on Napoleon, the History Channel’s Conquerors program (Napoleon’s Greatest Victory;Caesar in Gaul) and Napoleon: The Man Who Would Conquer Europe, as well as in programs on the Learning and Discovery channels. He has served as historical consultant to History Channel and National Geographic Society programs. Markham has contributed to four important reference encyclopedias (Leadership; World History; American Revolution; French Revolution and Napoleon). He has presented numerous academic papers to conferences in the United States, the UK, France, Italy, Israel, Georgia, and Russia. He is President of the Napoleonic Alliance and Executive Vice-President and Editor-in-Chief of the International Napoleonic Society. David has organized International Napoleonic Congresses in Italy, Israel, the Republic of Georgia, and France. He was the first American scholar to present a paper at the Borodino Conference in Russia. His awards include the Legion of Merit from the International Napoleonic Society, the President’s Medal from the Napoleonic Alliance, and the Marengo Medal from the province of Alessandria, Italy.

Dedication

This book is dedicated to my wife, Barbara A. Markham, whose encouragement and help have made all the difference.

Author’s Acknowledgments

I owe a deep debt of gratitude to Stacy Kennedy of Wiley for giving me the chance to write this book and to Joan Friedman for serving as the editor. Both of these ladies have been a pleasure to work with. Any number of other people have helped and encouraged me in my work, including Jerry Gallaher, Don Horward, Ben Weider, my dear friend Doug La Follette, and most of all my wife, Barbara.

Publisher’s Acknowledgments

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Contents

Title

Introduction

About This Book

Conventions Used in This Book

What You’re Not to Read

Foolish Assumptions

How This Book Is Organized

Icons Used in This Book

Where to Go from Here

Part I : Beginnings

Chapter 1: Why Remember Napoleon?

A Legend in His Own Time

Respecting Napoleon’s Legacy

A Napoleonic Primer

Chapter 2: Raising a Genius

Fighting for Corsican Independence

Getting to Know Napoleon’s Family

Educating a Genius

Heading Home

Chapter 3: The French Revolution: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity

Tension at Versailles

Convening the Estates General

Sparking Revolution

Supporting Revolution, Winning Support

Chapter 4: Moving into the Limelight

Losing Some Revolutionary Fervor

Catching a Break

Taking a Step Backward

Securing a Government

Jump-Starting His Career

Chapter 5: Josephine!

Learning about Love

A Rose by Any Other Name

Meeting and Marrying

Part II : Building an Empire

Chapter 6: Improvising an Army in Italy

Assessing the Austrian Threat

Fulfilling a Geographical Destiny

Getting Napoleon on Board

Building a Winning Army

Leading the Campaign

Dealing with the Austrians

Longing for Josephine

Continuing the Fight Against Austria

Hosting a Troubled Family Reunion

Settling Scores, Creating Countries

Chapter 7: Mixing Art, Science, and Guns in Egypt

Basking in the Glow of Glory

Setting Sights on Egypt

Emulating Alexander

Sailing (and Marching) into History

Struggling with Josephine

Campaigning in the Holy Land

Defending against the Turks

Suffering European Setbacks

Chapter 8: Gaining Control of France

Returning Home a Hero

Dealing with Josephine

Being a Hero in a Troubled Nation

Chapter 9: Winning His Greatest Victories

Seeking Peace in Europe

Fighting the Austrians in Italy — Again!

Fighting the Austrians and Russians — Yet Again!

Chapter 10: Conquering a Continent

Reorganizing Europe

Tussling with Prussia and Russia

Facing Another Austrian Threat

Part III : Losing an Empire

Chapter 11: Sailing into Disaster with the British

Facing Denial in Egypt

Destroying the Danish Fleet (Twice)

Sinking the Spanish and French at Trafalgar

Chapter 12: Bleeding in Spain

Gaining Control of Portugal

Taking Advantage of Spain’s Political Turmoil

The Peasants Are Revolting (and So Are the Clergy)

Keeping Control All in the Family

Battling the British

The Spanish Ulcer

Defending France

Chapter 13: Reeling from Russia

Watching Storm Clouds Gather

Getting Russia Ready for War

Preparing France for War

Invading Mother Russia

Making the Long Return Home

Chapter 14: Defeat and Resurrection

Trying to Keep the Wolves at Bay

Defending the Homeland

Becoming the Emperor of Elba

The One Hundred Days

Chapter 15: Waterloo

Feeling the Weight of Waterloo

Organizing an Army and Seeking Peace

Picking a New Team

Marching to War

Bad News Travels Fastest

Chapter 16: St. Helena: Napoleon’s Final Island

Putting His Fate in British Hands

Arriving on a Tiny Rock 1,000 Miles from Nowhere

Losing His Last Battle

Returning to France

Part IV : A True Revolutionary

Chapter 17: Marshalling a Great Army

Revolutionizing the Army Corps System

Creating Marshals

Fighting a Modern War

Chapter 18: Sustaining Support at Home

Promoting a Point of View

Using the Power of Government

Controlling Images

Chapter 19: Building a Greater (Middle Class) France

Creating a Legal Legacy

Educating the People

Reforming the Economy

Chapter 20: Attempting a Dynasty

Surviving Assassination Attempts

Establishing an Empire

Seeking a Dynasty

Part V : Influencing Nations: Diplomacy and Legacy

Chapter 21: Boney Times with the Brits

Making One Great Effort at Peace

Failing Peace

Attempting Economic Embargo: The Continental System

Demonizing Napoleon

Chapter 22: Creating a New United Europe

Promoting Italian Risorgimento

Establishing an Independent Poland

Toward a Greater Germany

Short on Time, Long on Influence

Chapter 23: Religious Freedom and Jewish Liberation

Accommodating the Catholic Church

Promoting Jewish Freedom

Part VI : The Part of Tens

Chapter 24: Ten Interesting Battlefields to Visit

Waterloo (Belgium)

Borodino (Russia)

Austerlitz (Czech Republic)

Lodi (Italy)

Aspern-Essling, Lobau Island, and Wagram (Austria)

Arcola (Italy)

Acre/Jaffa (Israel)

Eylau (Russia)

Friedland (Russia)

Marengo (Italy)

Chapter 25: Ten Pieces of Advice for Napoleon

Get Rid of Talleyrand and Fouché

Have Better Reconnaissance

Don’t Depend on Your Siblings

Forget the Continental System

Don’t Marry Josephine

Don’t Divorce Josephine

Declare Victory in Moscow and Get Out of Town Quickly

Declare Equal Rights for Women

Don’t Become Emperor

See Dr. James Verling on St. Helena

Chapter 26: Ten (Plus) Best Sources for Further Information

Books and Periodicals

Organizations

Web Sites

Appendix A: Napoleonic Timeline

Appendix B: Maps of Napoleonic Europe

Introduction

F ew people in human history are more recognizable than Napoleon Bonaparte. Go anywhere in the world, and you will find an image of him in a local museum, antiques related to him in the local shops, and maybe even a men’s store or some other retail space carrying the name “Napoleon.” Even the grocery store isn’t safe, as there is a brand of canned goods carrying his name and image. Starbucks, the famous coffee company, uses Napoleon in some of its advertising, and, of course, there is Courvoisier Cognac, “The Cognac of Napoleon.” As I keep telling my wife, Barbara, “He’s everywhere!” And you know what? I think she’s finally starting to believe me!

And then there are the books. More books are written about Napoleon than about anyone else in history. Amazing, huh?

Okay, so Napoleon is a pretty big deal. But wasn’t he just some warmongering conqueror who was too short for his own good? Absolutely not. Napoleon was definitely a conqueror, but he was far more complex than that. It turns out that he was a very progressive force in history and a fascinating man to get to know “up close and personal.”

And that is what this book tries to do: give you a chance to get to know Napoleon the man. I tell you his life story, to be sure, but I also tell you about the forces that influenced his development and the forces with which he had to contend throughout his career. There is stuff on his battles but also on his many accomplishments and on his importance to our world today.

And I don’t forget his loves: I give you the inside story on his love affair and marriage to Josephine, why they divorced, why Napoleon then married an Austrian princess, why a beautiful young Polish woman threw herself at him . . . well, you get the idea.

If you’d like to get past some of the stereotypes and discover the real story of Napoleon, this is the book for you.

About This Book

This book gives you “everything you ever wanted to know about Napoleon but were afraid to ask.” I start from the beginning of his life and go to the end, giving you what I hope is a pretty exciting ride. Then I turn to a number of important elements of Napoleon’s storied career that are better dealt with by themselves, rather than squished into a chronological tale. His reforms of everything from the military to the law, his political genius, his problems with the British, his promotion of religious liberty, and his moves toward creating a united Europe: All are discussed herein.

Many people like to read the story of a person’s life from start to finish, and you can do that with this book. But you don’t have to. Fascinated with the Battle of Waterloo? Head straight to Chapter 15. Want to know more about Napoleon’s role in providing religious freedom for the Jews? Chapter 23 is for you. Heard that the Rosetta Stone was found by Napoleon’s soldiers in Egypt and want to know more? Head directly to Chapter 7. And so it goes. No matter how you choose to read this book, I think you’ll find it a very interesting story.

Oh, one more thing. There are lots of pictures in this book. They are all of engravings or other artifacts from the period or shortly thereafter, and all are from my private collection. Too many history books don’t show as well as tell, and I’m grateful to Wiley for making this truly a show-and-tell book.

Conventions Used in This Book

The short answer: not many. This isn’t a scientific book. There’s not much technical material and little in the way of Web sites. But there are a few things to keep in mind:

First, just what should we call this guy, anyway? His name in English is spelled Napoleon Bonaparte. Some historians call him Bonaparte until they discuss the period when he became emperor; then they call him Napoleon. To keep it simple, I pretty much always call him Napoleon. The original spelling of his last name was Buonaparte, but he got rid of that as soon as he really became somebody, so I use the spelling he preferred and that is most well-known.

I mention the 18th century and 19th century from time to time, so I’ll remind you that the 18th century is actually 1700–1799, and the 19th century is 1800–1899. Just subtract one number and you’ve got it.

There are some French words and phrases in the book, and the first time I use them I give English translations.

What You’re Not to Read

Listen, I wrote this whole book, so of course I think you should read and savor each and every word! But, okay, some words are more important than others. Some of the less important are

Sidebars: I’ve included a few sidebars that, while useful, are not critical to your understanding of the main points of the text.

Technical Stuff paragraphs: This isn’t a scientific or computer book, but some items are somewhat technical in nature. If you see a Technical Stuff icon next to a paragraph, you can skip it if you wish.

Foolish Assumptions

I wrote this book for people just like you!

You like history or biography but don’t really want to read 450 pages of small print on one person’s life.

You have heard of Napoleon but don’t know much about him and want to know more.

You may not know a lot about history, but you have heard of people like Alexander the Great or Julius Caesar.

You think that history can sometimes be dry and are hoping that this book will not put you to sleep. Well, I’m hoping that, too!

How This Book Is Organized

Napoleon is a giant in history, far too big to be devoured in one giant gulp. This book chops his life and accomplishments into six parts, allowing you to take it a little or a lot at a time, as you prefer. The first three parts are a more or less chronological look at his life, while the last three parts look at some of his specific accomplishments.

Part I: Beginnings

Anyone’s early life is key to his future development, and Napoleon’s birth on the island of Corsica was especially important to the directions he ultimately took. In this part, I first look at Napoleon’s overall importance, and then I trace how his early life and the French Revolution led to his moving into a position of prominence. And here is where you get the first installment of one of the great love stories (and some of Napoleon’s romances that preceded it).

Part II: Building an Empire

You probably already think of Napoleon as a conqueror who controlled much of Europe. But how did he get to that position? Here I take you with Napoleon to Italy and Egypt and then to France, where we watch him take control of the reins of government. Then we join him as he marches across Europe and wins some of history’s most famous battles.

Part III: Losing an Empire

Napoleon was a great military commander, but eventually his luck ran out. This part explains the forces and mistakes that led to his ultimate defeat and removal from power. If we followed him to glory, it’s only fair that we follow him to defeat and exile, and I conclude this part with his final days of life.

Part IV: A True Revolutionary

Napoleon was a brilliant person who had great dreams for progressive change. And in the few years he was in power, he was able to give many of those ideas a good start, anyway. This part shows his innovations in the military and talks about what he did to keep the French happy with him in charge. And how did he get from general to emperor, and what happened to Josephine, and just who was that Austrian princess? Tune in to this part for all those answers and more.

Part V: Influencing Nations: Diplomacy and Legacy

This part first looks at Napoleon’s relations with his greatest nemesis: Great Britain. It also looks at an unintended consequence of his control of Europe, nationalism, and how it both helped and hurt his cause (and the cause of a united Europe). Finally, I discuss one of Napoleon’s most important legacies, the concept of religious freedom, especially for the Jews.

Part VI: The Part of Tens

Wiley told me I “had” to put this part in here, but it was one of the most fun parts to do and, I hope, to read. Planning a trip to Europe? Don’t miss some of the battlefields and museums I describe in this part. Wish you could give some historical figure a piece of your mind? I do just that here, and it’s great fun. Want to know more about Napoleon? Good for you! This part offers some tips on where to look.

Appendixes

It’s always good to be able to see a person’s life and accomplishments in some sort of timeframe, and that’s what I do for you in the first appendix, a timeline of Napoleon’s life. Obviously, page limits mean that I can’t list everything he did. Some books out there actually follow his life day by day, hour by hour. Not this one. But I give you a good overview here.

In the second appendix, I provide two maps that offer visual evidence of Napoleon’s power as the Emperor of the French. In the first, you can see how much European territory Napoleon controlled at the height of his reign. In the second, I show you where Napoleon’s various military campaigns took him through the years.

Icons Used in This Book

I love the concept of icons, which to me are one of the really neat things about books For Dummies. I’ve selected three for this book:

This icon suggests that what you see here will be relevant elsewhere in the book, so you may want to file it away in the not-so-deep recesses of your mind.

The stuff that follows this icon is perhaps less important to your understanding of what is going on than other material may be. You can skip it (though frankly, I suggest you at least skim it).

This is my favorite! Napoleon is often seen as larger than life, as having his very own legend created around him. This icon suggests some of the elements that have become part of that legend — some negative, mostly positive.

Where to Go from Here

You can start anywhere you want, depending on your interests. Clearly, some people prefer to start at the beginning and move forward. If you do that, some of the chapters on Napoleon’s specific accomplishments may fall right into place. But maybe you prefer to read about, say, his Russian campaign and then go back and see how he got there and what happened next. Or maybe you want to read my advice to Napoleon in Chapter 25, and then check out the relevant chapters to see if you agree with me.

Whatever your preference, read on!

Part I

Beginnings

In this part . . .

Y ou’ve probably heard of Napoleon Bonaparte (after all, you picked up this book) and may even recognize that he was a leader of France who conquered a bunch of countries. You’ve likely heard of his wife, Josephine, as well. But did you know that neither Napoleon nor Josephine was even French? Indeed, they came from two separate islands thousands of miles apart!

This part answers the burning question, “Just where did this guy Napoleon come from, and how was he able to rise to power?” Okay, that’s two questions, but go with it.

In this part, you get an idea why Napoleon is worth reading about. Then, you get to read about him! — his early childhood, the influence of the French Revolution on his early career, and Napoleon’s first moves toward greatness. And, of course, I tell you all about Josephine!

Chapter 1

Why Remember Napoleon?

In This Chapter

Recognizing Napoleon’s importance in his lifetime

Realizing Napoleon’s lingering influence

He was a man with amazing abilities and a dangerous ambition; by his talents the finest man to have appeared since Caesar, whom in our eyes he would appear to have surpassed.

Stendhal, A Life of Napoleon

M ore books have been written about Napoleon than about anyone else in history — more than about Christ, Mohammad, Alexander the Great, or Julius Caesar. The last estimate for the number of books written on Napoleon was over 300,000. We’re talking separate titles

There are Napoleonic societies all over the world, and he is routinely featured on television shows and in movies. I am convinced that there are more representations of Napoleon in the decorative arts (engravings, miniatures, bronze and porcelain statues, snuffboxes, and so on) than anyone else — see Figure 1-1 for just one example.

Figure 1-1: A rare period engraving of Napoleon as Emperor of the French.

And yet, it seems the world can’t quite make up its collective mind about who Napoleon really was and why he mattered. To some, he was a promoter of the great values represented by the American and French Revolutions. To others, he was little more than a power-hungry conqueror. But everyone seems to agree that Napoleon was important. As the quote from the 19th-century French writer Stendhal indicates, he is remembered as being both brilliant and a little dangerous, much like the two men to whom he is often compared, Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar.

In this chapter, I touch on why Napoleon was important while he lived and why he is seen as important today. Obviously, answering those questions is the point of this entire book, and I get into much more detail in subsequent chapters. But before I dive into the details (which I find pretty fascinating and think you will, too), I want to whet your appetite.

A Legend in His Own Time

Napoleon was without question the most important person of his age. At the peak of his career, he stood like a colossus astride all of Europe. For a short time, he controlled most of western and central Europe. But his importance was not just in his conquests.

Napoleon’s importance can be seen in terms of what he did for France, for Europe, and for the rest of the world. Although he was in power for only around 15 years, his influence extended far beyond what might have been expected for a reign that short.

Speaking of short

Okay, folks, it’s time to put the short jokes to rest, once and for all. Lots of people, probably including you, think of Napoleon as that short fellow with a Napoleonic complex, the term given to people who feel they have to make up for their lack of height. Well, the evidence is in, and it suggests that Napoleon was actually about 5’6” or 5’7”, which, as it happens, was about the average height for Frenchmen in those days. So there!

And, while we’re at it, he didn’t run around with his hand inside his shirt, either. He wasn’t dealing with a stomachache or pains from cancer, and he wasn’t (as one Starbucks ad would have it) holding a demitasse of coffee under his coat. That was a popular pose of the 18th and 19th centuries when sitting for a portrait; I’ve even seen George Washington portrayed that way!

Changing France’s institutions

Few leaders in French history (or in the history of any other country, for that matter) had as much influence on their nation as Napoleon did. As you discover later in the book, Napoleon completely reorganized his nation’s economic, legal, and educational institutions. He brought a level of unity to the nation that it had never experienced before, and he did so largely by centralizing French institutions. In education, for example, he centralized the curricu- lum and teacher selection process, giving more power to the education bureau- crats in Paris. But he also reorganized, expanded, and greatly improved educational opportunities for French citizens, changing the education system from an elite-oriented institution to one that produced well-educated and productive middle-class citizens (see Chapter 19).

Napoleon did the same for France’s economy, forming the Bank of France and restructuring France’s finances and budget process, as well as her tax structure (see Chapter 19). While he was at it, he improved France’s infrastructure and promoted religious equality (see Chapters 19 and 23, respectively).

His most famous domestic work was his rewriting of the civil code into a document that would eventually become known as the Code Napoléon. Napoleon believed that his legal code was his greatest legacy, and I discuss it in Chapter 19.

Influencing Europe and beyond

Napoleon was able to conquer and control much of Europe just long enough to institute some of the reforms that he had implemented in France. He extended the Code Napoléon, in part or in whole, to most of western and some of central Europe. He swept away much of the old feudal order that had dominated Europe for so long and put in its place governments based on equality and the other progressive ideals of the French Revolution (which I discuss in Chapter 3).

When Napoleon fell from power (see Chapter 15), some of that feudal order returned for a while. But as the old saying goes, “How are you going to keep ’em down on the farm after they’ve seen the big city?” Once introduced to progressive liberalism, the people of Europe would not long tolerate the old order.

Napoleon’s ability to take his progressive ideas to Europe depended largely on the success of his army, and that success depended largely on Napoleon ushering in what we might call modern warfare. No, he didn’t have tanks and planes, but he did reorganize the French army to make it more effective. And he also used tactics that completely bamboozled his opponents. As I show in Chapter 17 (as well as in Chapters 9 and 10), Napoleon is often called the master of war for good reason. His tactics are still taught in the world’s finest military academies.

Napoleon reorganized France’s and Europe’s social, political, economic, and military systems. Is that enough to make him the most important person of his day? I think so, and I suspect that you’ll agree after you read more of this book.

Respecting Napoleon’s Legacy

Napoleon was considered extraordinary during his lifetime, and his reputation has only grown in the years since his death in 1821. Here are a few reasons why:

As I note in the previous section, he is seen as the father of modern warfare, and in Parts II and III of this book, you get a good idea why.

Napoleon is often described as the father of the European Union because of the various steps toward greater unity that took place while he was in power.

His sale of the Louisiana territory to the United States is credited as a major contribution to the U.S. rise as a world power.

Napoleon’s rewriting of the civil code, known as the Code Napoléon, has survived in France and in numerous other countries that were influenced by France. (I discuss this code in Chapter 19.)

Napoleon literally changed the face of Europe. His name was used in the cause of revolutions throughout Europe during the 19th century. As I explain in Chapter 6, the unification of Italy had its beginnings with Napoleon’s actions there as early as 1796. The modern state of Germany owes much to his actions as well, as I discuss in Chapter 22. His support of Polish independence (see Chapter 22) is still fondly remembered by modern Poles; a large equestrian statue of one of Napoleon’s marshals, Prince Joseph Poniatowski, stands at the entrance to the Namiestnikowski Palace that is now used as the Polish president’s house.

But we remember Napoleon for much more than his accomplishments. We remember him for his brilliance. He was a genius with a breadth of intellect that has seldom been measured. He could, for example, dictate four different letters to four different secretaries at the same time, rotating a paragraph at a time through each of them, without being reminded where he had left off.

We remember him not only for what he took to countries he came to dominate, but for what he brought back. For example, his soldiers discovered the Rosetta Stone in Egypt, which helped bring about modern Egyptology (see Chapter 7).

Napoleon also captures our imagination from the very nature of his story. His life is a classic rags-to-riches tale; he went from obscurity in Corsica to dominance of a continent. Throw into the mix at least two captivating love stories and a healthy measure of pathos, and you have the makings of all those books and movies.

Napoleon was perhaps the last great man of action. He was constantly on the go, sleeping very little, wolfing down his meals. He was determined to do as much as possible in the small amount of time he knew he would have. As it turned out, he had even less time than he imagined, but he accomplished an amazing amount anyway.

I am not alone, of course, in my estimation of Napoleon as one of the most extraordinary men in history. The German philosopher Johann Goethe wrote that Napoleon was “always enlightened by reason, always clear and decisive, and gifted at every moment with enough energy to translate into action whatever he recognized as being advantageous or necessary. . . . He was in a permanent state of enlightenment, which is why his fate was more brilliant than the world has ever seen or is likely to see after him.” Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, Napoleon’s sometimes friend, sometimes enemy, said that Napoleon’s career was “the most extraordinary that has occurred for one thousand years.”

A Napoleonic Primer

Before we dive into the good stuff, I want to clarify a few terms that you’ll see in later chapters or in other books about Napoleon. First, some historical terms you may want to be familiar with:

Bourbon Dynasty: No, I’m not referring to the drink. This was the line of kings of France that began with the 16th-century rule of Henry IV (who ruled 1589–1610) and included Louis XIV (1643–1715), Louis XV (1715–1774), Louis XVI (he of French Revolution fame, 1774–1792), Louis XVIII (1814–1824, minus a few months for the Hundred Days, Napoleon’s brief return to power in 1815), Charles X (1824–1830), and Louis Philippe (1830–1848).

The Bourbons also ruled Spain for hundreds of years. In fact, the current king of Spain, Juan Carlos (1975–present), is a Bourbon.

Hapsburg Dynasty: This dynasty, centered on Austria, was a major competitor to the Bourbon dynasty. It ruled the Holy Roman Empire from 1273 until its final destruction after World War I in 1918. Francis I of Austria, who you meet in this book, was a member of the Hapsburg Dynasty. (He was also called Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire until he abdicated that title in 1806.) Francis was the father of Marie Louise, Napoleon’s second wife.

Napoleonic Wars: This term, used to describe wars fought under Napoleon’s command, seems to lay blame for these conflicts squarely at Napoleon’s feet. In fact, most of the wars fought by Napoleon were really extensions of those started during the French Revolution (see Chapter 3). The old political regimes in Europe feared that the progressive ideas of the Revolution, and later of Napoleon, would spread to their people. (They were right, of course.)

As a result, the old regimes of Europe formed a number of coalitions, or alliances, against first Revolutionary and then Napoleonic France. Thus, these wars are often called the War of the First Coalition, the War of the Second Coalition, and so on. On the Cheat Sheet at the beginning of this book, I explain who took part in each coalition.

French Empire: FrenchEmpire generally means the period from 1804–1815, when Napoleon was Emperor of the French. However, it also is sometimes used to denote a style of furniture and other decorative arts of that period.

First Empire and Second Empire: These terms are usually associated with decorative art styles, or they’re used to delineate the period of an artifact. First Empire refers to the period when Napoleon I was emperor, generally 1804 to 1815. Second Empire is the period of Napoleon III, 1851 to 1870.

Napoleon I and Napoleon III: When Napoleon became Emperor of the French (see Chapter 20), his title was Napoleon I because he was the first person named Napoleon to ever be king or emperor in that country. Later in the century, his nephew, Louis Napoleon, was also crowned emperor, becoming Napoleon III.

Wait a minute, couldn’t the French even count? Where’s Napoleon II? Napoleon had a son, and in 1815, when Napoleon was forced to abdicate his throne (see Chapter 15), his supporters briefly declared the son Napoleon II. (Before that time, and since then, Napoleon’s son is usually referred to as The King of Rome.) Napoleon’s son never really became France’s emperor, but in deference to his memory, Louis Napoleon took the title of Napoleon III.

Next, some military and political titles you’ll run across:

General: This is the highest military rank in the army. The type of general denoted the level of command. Thus a general of brigade (brigadier general) commanded a brigade. A general of division commanded — you guessed it — a division.

Marshal: This term describes a handful of men (26, to be exact) who were granted the title of Marshal of the Empire. The title often brought with it the command of a major military unit, but it was not strictly a military title; it also came with civilian titles of nobility and great wealth. The symbol of the Marshalate (as they were collectively known) was the marshal’s baton. Marshals were hand-picked by Napoleon himself, based on their military abilities, political considerations, and personal relationships.

Consul: After Napoleon gained power in 1799, a new constitution established a three-member executive committee to run the country, replacing the inept and corrupt Directory. Each of these three men was called a Consul, and Napoleon was made First Consul, a position that in reality gave him almost all of the executive power. He retained this position until he was crowned emperor on December 2, 1804.

Consulate: This term denotes the period from 1799–1804 when France was governed by three Consuls, with Napoleon serving as First Consul. The term also is used to describe a particular style of decorative arts popular during that period.

Chapter 2

Raising a Genius

In This Chapter

Getting a handle on Corsican politics

Introducing Napoleon’s family

Recognizing Napoleon’s first benefactor

Receiving a royal education

N apoleon’s birthplace, Corsica, is a small island off the northern coast of Italy in the warm waters of the Mediterranean. Just over 100 miles long, it is blessed with beautiful beaches and picturesque mountains. Its capital city of Ajaccio sits on a beautiful and strategically located bay. The pleasant nature of the island and its friendly people belie its sometimes stormy past.

In this chapter, I offer some insights into the influence that Napoleon’s birthplace and its political situation had during his formative years. I also introduce you to Napoleon’s family, whose influence on the emerging genius was important, though not always positive. And I explain the role that the French governor of Corsica, Count Charles René Marbeuf, played in his life by helping Napoleon get an education at a French military school.

Fighting for Corsican Independence

The first Punic War (264–221 BCE) was an epic struggle between the early Roman Republic and its primary rival, Carthage, which resulted in a complete Roman victory. Among its spoils of war were three islands: Sardinia, Elba, and Corsica. All three remained Italian long after the fall of Rome.

In the years leading up to Napoleon’s birth, Italy was not the unified nation that we know today. What is today modern Italy was actually a collection of republics, kingdoms, and Papal States (governed by the Pope). One of the republics was the Republic of Genoa, which had owned Corsica since 1284. The official language of Corsica (and hence of Napoleon and his family) was Italian. The local rulers of Corsica were appointed by Genoa, and the Corsicans were none too happy about it.

In time, the Corsicans began to demand independence from Genoa. By 1755, they managed to force the local Genoese governors from the island. Led by Pasquale Paoli, the Corsicans were convinced that complete independence lay just around the corner. Paoli took charge of island government and was quite successful, and popular, in his new role.

Battling a new enemy

Unfortunately for the Corsicans, the Genoese decided to cut their losses and make a nice profit in the bargain. At first, they simply transferred their rights to Corsican ports to France. The King of France, Louis XV, was anxious to expand French hegemony in the area, and Corsica was key to his success. A few years later, in 1768, Genoa sold Corsica outright to a grateful King Louis. France had already sent soldiers to occupy the ports, and after the sale, King Louis sent more troops, commanded by Lieutenant General Count Charles René Marbeuf.

Corsican patriots, led by Paoli, were outraged and immediately began to fight for their independence from France. This task was much more difficult than rebelling against Genoa, however, as the French garrison was large and Louis was determined to hold on to his new purchase. Paoli sought help from the British, who were quite willing to give support to anything that might increase their influence in the area.

Stalemate

The British assistance promised was considerably more than the British assistance rendered. Paoli soon found that he was on his own. The Brits sent money but no troops. The French troops, in the meantime, had gained control of most of the cities and ports, while the Corsican nationalists held sway in the interior.

By 1769, a stalemate seemed certain, but Paoli blundered into a confrontation that ultimately cost him much of his fighting force. The French, meanwhile, had gained a new commander, Lieutenant General Comte de Vaux, who was determined to end the stalemate once and for all.

Checkmate

General de Vaux was as good as his word. Slowly and methodically, he pushed Paoli and his soldiers back. At the battle of Ponte Nuovo on May 9, 1769, he administered a deathblow — a coup de grâce — to Paoli’s forces. Those that survived fled to parts unknown. Paoli and a few of his closest companions managed to get aboard a British ship and flee to London.

The fight for Corsican independence was over, at least for the moment. General de Vaux, realizing that compassion now would reap rewards later, offered a general amnesty, which was gratefully accepted by virtually all Corsicans.

Coming under French rule

Even though the fighting was over, for many Corsicans, the dream of independence would never die. Corsica soon became divided between those who were quite willing to accept French rule, which proved to be fairly enlightened, and those who simply bided their time waiting for Paoli to return. Those Corsicans who lived in the cities did reasonably well under French rule. Poorer folk, mostly in the countryside, were less happy. To them, Paoli took on almost Christ-like imagery as they awaited his return.

Accepting amnesty

One of the families that accepted General de Vaux’s amnesty was that of Carlo and Leticia Buonaparte. No, that’s not a typo; Buonaparte is the Italian way of spelling Bonaparte. (I use the latter spelling throughout this book, but the earlier spelling pops up from time to time.)

Carlo had good reason to accept the offer of amnesty and be glad of the chance. His beautiful, 19-year-old wife was quite pregnant. Fleeing French soldiers in the mountains is not exactly ideal for a pregnant woman, so the family was happy to return to their home in Ajaccio.

Napoleon’s birthplace today

Napoleon’s home on Corsica is, not surprisingly, a major tourist attraction. The house is an imposing sight, but you must remember that during Napoleon’s childhood the family owned only a few rooms. (They gradually expanded their holdings until they owned the entire house.)

If you visit his birthplace, you can see

The room and couch where Napoleon is said to have been born

A gallery that seems like a miniature hall of mirrors from Versailles

A room with a trap door that Napoleon could use to leave the house to avoid his many admirers

Leticia’s bedroom

The room where Napoleon stayed in 1799 on his way home from Egypt, the last time he set foot on the island

In addition, the city of Ajaccio is filled with statues, museums, and historical sites dedicated to Napoleon. Of special interest is the Ajaccio Cathedral, where Leticia first felt the pains of labor for Napoleon’s birth. There is also the Imperial Chapel, where Napoleon’s parents, his uncle Joseph Fesch, and some of his siblings are buried. The Place de Gaulle has large statues of Napoleon and his brothers. Nearby is the grotto where the young Napoleon is said to have gone to daydream from time to time. In the countryside around the city, you can visit the Bonapartes’ country home, with a huge olive press on the ground floor.

Entering the world

There, life settled down to something far more normal. Until August 15, that is. On that day, Leticia was attending Mass in the family church when she felt the onset of labor. She walked the narrow streets back to her home, which consisted of part of a large house in a central part of town. Soon after, she gave birth to her second son, Napoleon. (Today, you can still visit the church, walk down the streets, and see the very bed on which Napoleon Bonaparte was born; see the sidebar “Napoleon’s birthplace today.”)

Getting to Know Napoleon’s Family

Part of the Corsican cultural heritage is a reliance on and loyalty to one’s family. The positive aspect of this heritage is that it can provide an emotional and economic support system invaluable to each member of the family. But this family loyalty can also lead to generations-long vendettas; Corsican history can attest to the existence of such family feuds. As Napoleon would learn, loyalty toward family members can also become problematic if those family members are of lesser ability or lesser loyalty than yourself.

Throughout his life, Napoleon experienced both the good and bad consequences of the tradition of family loyalty he was born into. In this section, I introduce you to the members of his immediate family and explain a bit about the role they played in Napoleon’s life.

Napoleon’s father, Carlo

Napoleon’s father was trained in the law. After participating in the failed effort for Corsican independence, Carlo (1746–1785) quickly accepted a position working for the local court. He became active in politics and gained some modest importance. Despite his previous fight for Corsican independence from Genoese rule, Carlo established good relationships, even alliances, with French officials on the island and in Paris. He became especially close to Count Marbeuf, who was then the governor of the island.

Napoleon must have heard stories of his father’s bravery during Corsica’s struggle for liberation and was no doubt impressed with Carlo’s willingness to put his life on the line for a patriotic cause, even exposing his family to danger. At the same time, Carlo’s willingness to switch sides when the victor became clear taught Napoleon a valuable lesson in practical politics.

Carlo came from a family of some wealth and importance, even of noble title, but most of the wealth had been dissipated and the title somehow lost. Indeed, one of the things Carlo did that would have the most influence on Napoleon’s future — and the entire family’s — was to doggedly petition to have his title of nobility restored. He succeeded, with the important intervention of his friend, Governor Count Marbeuf. As I explain later in the chapter, this noble title made Napoleon’s French military education possible.

His restored title also allowed Carlo to advance politically. He was soon a member of the Council of Twelve Nobles. His lack of any real wealth notwithstanding, Carlo played his role to the hilt, becoming known for his outlandish clothes and acquiring the title (not necessarily complimentary) of “Buonaparte the Magnificent.”

Carlo died while Napoleon was still a young student in France, but his influence on his son’s life was positive and long-lasting.

Napoleon’s mother, Leticia

The real head of Corsican families was the mother, and the Bonapartes were no exception. Young and beautiful, Leticia (1750–1836) held the family together during times of adversity and was an inspiration to all who knew her. She had been raised in the countryside and knew well the Corsican traditions, both good and bad. She had witnessed first-hand the results of vendettas and had seen how important it was that families stick together.

In the Corsican tradition, Leticia married young; she was 14 when she married Carlo. After losing her first two children, she gave birth to her first son, Joseph, a year before she bore Napoleon. She went on to have three more sons and three daughters after Napoleon was born. A woman of great intelligence and a forceful personality, Leticia encouraged her children to get the best education possible and was especially supportive of Napoleon throughout his career.

Leticia’s beauty and charming personality made her popular with all who knew her. One of her admirers was Governor Marbeuf. More than 40 years her senior, Marbeuf took a real liking to the wife of his friend Carlo, and he and Leticia were known to take long walks together. This caused some tongues to wag, and some historians’ tongues are wagging to this very day. There is no evidence, however, that any hanky-panky ever occurred. (And there’s certainly no evidence that Marbeuf was actually Napoleon’s father, as some people have speculated.) That said, it is likely that his affection for Leticia was one of the reasons Marbeuf was so willing to help the Bonaparte family.

Napoleon was deeply attached to his mother. Years later, in exile on the island of St. Helena, Napoleon said that Leticia “deserves all kind of veneration.” Having been taught the importance of family loyalty, Napoleon would put the care and protection of his family very high on his list of priorities. Some family members did not always deserve this loyalty, but his mother deserved it and reciprocated in kind: She was loyal to Napoleon to the very end. She was known to the family — and to history — by the affectionate and respectful title Madame Mère (literally, “Madame Mother”).

Napoleon’s siblings

Napoleon’s brothers and sisters would prove to be a decidedly mixed blessing throughout his career. Their parents couldn’t possibly have imagined what lay in store for these very special children.

Joseph

As the eldest brother, Joseph (1768–1844) may have expected to be the dominant sibling, but with a brother like Napoleon, that wasn’t very likely! Joseph was not as bright and didn’t have the same leadership qualities as his younger brother. (Then again, Napoleon was unique in both categories.) Joseph was loyal to Napoleon and was generally willing to do whatever Napoleon asked him to do.

Joseph married a young woman named Julie Clary, who was the sister of Napoleon’s first true love, Désirée Clary. (For more on Désirée and Napoleon’s other loves, see Chapter 5.)

It didn’t hurt Joseph to be the brother of his rising star of a brother who gave him a variety of administrative and diplomatic positions, most of which he fulfilled successfully.

In 1806, Napoleon made Joseph the King of Naples, and in 1808, he made him the King of Spain. In both positions, Joseph was well-meaning and somewhat successful at bringing Napoleonic reforms to his kingdoms, but his overall lack of leadership was telling. Never was it more of a problem than in 1814 when he was unsuccessful in his duties to defend Paris against the oncoming Russians, Prussians, and Austrians (see Chapter 14).

After Napoleon’s fall in 1815, Joseph spent most of the rest of his life in the United States, in Philadelphia. He moved to Florence, Italy, three years before his death.

Lucien

In the early days of Napoleon’s rise, it seemed that Lucien (1775–1840) might be Napoleon’s most valuable brother. He became active in Revolutionary politics. Closely associated with the radical politics of the day, Lucien both helped and hurt Napoleon’s early career.

Later, during Napoleon’s rule as First Consul, Lucien accepted positions as Minister of the Interior and ambassador to Spain. Lucien and Napoleon had a significant falling out when Lucien married a woman of whom Napoleon disapproved. Napoleon would offer Lucien several nice positions, but all on the condition that he leave his wife. Lucien refused.

Napoleon’s fall from power led to a complete reconciliation. Lucien was with Napoleon throughout the Hundred Days (when Napoleon returned from his first exile) and at Waterloo (see Chapter 15). When Napoleon was in exile on the island of St. Helena, Lucien attempted to join him there but was refused this opportunity by the British government. He spent the rest of his life in Italy.

Louis

Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846) began his career in the military. Napoleon had taken him under his wing by supporting him on a meager lieutenant’s pay while Louis was in school. Later, in Napoleon’s 1796 campaign in Italy (see Chapter 6), Louis was on board as an aide-de-camp (chief military aide). Louis also joined Napoleon in Egypt (see Chapter 7) and by 1804 had risen to the position of general of division.

In 1802, Napoleon more or less forced his younger brother to marry Josephine’s daughter, Hortense. This marriage made no one happy, least of all the newly married couple. Louis became embittered toward his brother. He had a son with Hortense — a possible successor to Napoleon — but the boy died young.

In 1806, Louis was made King of Holland. While he implemented several reforms, he argued bitterly with Napoleon over various economic issues and abdicated his throne in 1810. He lived most of the rest of his life in Italy.

Louis and Hortense did make one lasting contribution to French — and Napoleonic — history. One of their children, Charles Louis Napoleon, eventually became president and then emperor of France, ruling as Napoleon III.

Jérôme

Like Napoleon’s other brothers, Jérôme (1784–1860) would prove to be both good news and bad news for Napoleon. When Napoleon became First Consul (ruler of France) in 1799 (see Chapter 8), Jérôme left school and, at the ripe old age of 15, joined the navy. Not surprisingly, given his older brother’s political prominence, he soon rose through the ranks and was an admiral by 1806. While Jérôme was on duty in the West Indies, a British blockade afforded him the opportunity to travel throughout the United States. While there, he fell in love with a young woman named Elizabeth Patterson, and they married in 1803. Napoleon was furious, and nothing Jérôme did persuaded Napoleon to accept the marriage. Elizabeth was not allowed to set foot on French soil. After bearing Jérôme a son while in England, she eventually returned to the United States.

In contrast, Napoleon admired Jérôme’s military actions and made him a prince. After his first marriage was annulled by Napoleonic decree, Jérôme married Princess Catherine of Württemberg in 1807. That same year, he became king of a new country, Westphalia, which was created from some of Napoleon’s conquests in Germany.

Like Louis, Jérôme ran his country as he saw fit and was rather fond of the perks that came with being king. He spent far too much money on himself and not nearly enough on the kingdom. A furious Napoleon did all he could to turn Jérôme around, but it didn’t work. The two grew apart, and in 1813, Westphalia fell to the Sixth Coalition allies.

Upon Napoleon’s return from exile in Elba, Jérôme rejoined his brother, who welcomed him back into the fold. Jérôme was given a significant command at Waterloo (see Chapter 15). When Napoleon III took power, Jérôme was made governor of the Invalides (a retired soldier’s home in Paris where Napoleon is now buried) and a marshal of France.

Elisa

Napoleon’s eldest sister, Elisa (1777–1820), was generally a thorn in Napoleon’s side (much like many of her siblings). But Napoleon’s devotion to providing for his family naturally extended to her. In 1797, she married a minor Corsican nobleman named Felix Pasquale Bacciochi, despite her family’s opposition to the marriage. Napoleon rewarded Elisa’s husband the title of Prince of Piombino (a city in Tuscany, Italy), which made his sister the princess.

Like her famous brother, Elisa displayed remarkable administrative talents. She made significant improvements in her territory, which expanded as Napoleon gained greater control over the broader region. In governing, as well as in many affairs, Elisa generally ignored her husband. When Napoleon added Tuscany to her territory, Elisa was given the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany, which she held from 1809 to 1814.

Elisa began to fancy herself an heir to the famous Medici family of Italy and a great patron of the arts. When Napoleon’s fortunes were falling in 1814, Elisa’s only real concern was to preserve her own position, but she failed in those efforts. She eventually retired to Trieste, where she lived the rest of her life.

Pauline

Without a doubt, Napoleon’s sister Pauline (1780–1825) was the most interesting of the siblings. She was also the only sister who remained truly loyal to and appreciative of her imperial brother. Perhaps because of that, she is generally considered to have been Napoleon’s favorite.

After a torrid affair with Louis Marie Stanislas Fréron (see Chapter 3), Pauline married General Victor Leclerc in 1797, but he died in 1802 in Haiti. By then, Pauline had developed a much-deserved reputation for enjoying a life of, shall we say, pleasure. Napoleon, who was actually something of a prude, did not approve of this sort of behavior, but he would soon learn that there was little to be done about it. Anxious to live a lifestyle of the rich and famous, Pauline married Italian Prince Camillo Borghese in 1803. Between his wealth and a substantial dowry granted by Napoleon, she was set.

The marriage, however, was less than successful. Pauline and the prince each entertained a substantial number of lovers in a lifestyle that some found fascinating and others found scandalous. A well-known seductress, Pauline was fond of posing in the nude. A drinking cup was even molded from her breast. (It would fetch a pretty price on eBay today!)

Of all Napoleon’s siblings, Pauline was the most loyal during times of difficulty. She joined him in exile on Elba and used her great wealth to help him out. She followed him to Paris for the Hundred Days (see Chapter 14), but after Waterloo her health deteriorated and she moved to Rome. Reconciled with her husband by none other than the Pope (these people ran in high circles, folks), she managed to recover. Hearing of Napoleon’s ill health on St. Helena (see Chapter 16), she petitioned to join him in exile. Her petition was granted, but Napoleon died before she could leave. Her health once again crushed, she lived out her days with her husband in Rome and Florence.

Caroline

If Pauline was the most loyal to Napoleon, Napoleon’s youngest sister, Caroline (1782–1839), was the most disloyal and unappreciative of all of the family. Deeply resentful of Josephine and her family, Caroline eventually married Joachim Murat, one of Napoleon’s friends and a general in the army. When Murat was stationed in Paris, Caroline began to display an ambition that would eventually spell trouble for Napoleon and even her husband.

In 1804, Murat was made a Marshal of the Empire, and Caroline became increasingly important in the new social order. Jealous of the positions given to Josephine’s daughter, Hortense, Caroline sought some level of revenge by arranging for mistresses for Napoleon, all the while lobbying for a title for herself and her husband. They were eventually awarded the Grand Duchy of Berg and Cleves, and later the Kingdom of Naples.

You may think that being Queen of Naples would be a nice life to which one could quickly become accustomed. Not so Caroline. She soon became involved in a struggle for power with her husband, the king! The smart money was on her, and she soon became the dominant force. When Murat, who was still a marshal and had military duties in Napoleon’s army, was away on campaign in 1812, Caroline ruled as though he didn’t exist.

When Napoleon began to fall from power after 1812, Caroline, with a somewhat reluctant Joachim in tow, tried to negotiate a treaty with the Austrians that would allow them to keep their thrones if they turned on Napoleon. Talk about sibling rivalry! The deal was cut, but when King Murat saw Napoleon return for the Hundred Days, he turned on his Austrian allies and attacked them, hoping to help Napoleon. His actions had the opposite effect; they infuriated the Austrians, who not only drove Murat out of Italy but were unwilling to trust Napoleon and allow him to rule after his return to France (see Chapters 14 and 15).