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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
An in-depth exploration of the sound systems of varieties of English around the world, written by a renowned authority in the field In Sounds of English Worldwide, Raymond Hickey delivers a rigorous overview of the sound systems of varieties of English throughout the world. Beginning with an overview of the history and contexts of global varieties of English, this book guides readers through the spread of English during the colonial era leading up to the present day. The second section of the book broadly considers developments in the English-speaking world, accounting for the factors that triggered regional changes and resulted in diverse scenarios for English, including language contact and shift, new dialect formation , and the use of English in non-anglophone contexts. To assist students in learning how to approach the study of varieties of English, this valuable text addresses research questions of general interest to linguists and explores a variety of fieldwork methods commonly used by researchers in the area. This useful book offers: * A thorough introduction to English today, including its geographical and social distribution, focusing on variation and change around the world * Practical discussions of key changes in late modern English that determined the unique phonetic profile of different varieties of the language * In-depth examination of present-day scenarios and how they might pan out in the future development of English, considering the many factors which may shape global forms of the language * Includes useful summaries of varieties of English with a glossary and timeline, providing a quick reference of the key features of English around the world for students * Considers research issues and methods to aid students in applying the material of the book to their own studies Perfect for graduate students, advanced undergraduate students, and researchers studying varieties of Englishes, Sounds of English Worldwide will earn a place in the libraries of linguists and students studying Englishes worldwide from a sociolinguistic perspective as well as langague contact , bilingualism, the rise of new varieties along with English phonetics and phonology more generally.
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Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Maps
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Abbreviations
Preface
How to Use this Book
Part I Language and Variation
1 Studying Variation in Sound
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The View from the Sound System
1.3 Standards, Supraregional Varieties, and Vernaculars
1.4 Research Trends in Variety Studies
1.5 Data Sources and Analysis
2 The Sound System of English
2.1 Phonetics and Phonology
2.2 Vowels
2.3 Consonants
2.4 Prosody
2.5 Connected Speech
3 Sound Change in English
3.1 Analyzing Change
3.2 Trends in Present-Day Varieties
Part II The Spread of English
1 The Colonial Period
1.1 The British Empire
1.2 Settlement of Colonies
1.3 The Slave Trade
1.4 Migration between Colonies
1.5 Internal Migration
2 Transported Dialect Features
2.1 Early Stages and Their Effects
2.2 Language Contact
2.3 Language Shift
2.4 Relic Areas and Endangered Varieties
2.5 Loss of Transported Features
3 English in the World Today
3.1 The Two Hemispheres
3.2 Major Anglophone Areas
3.3 Dialects and Standards
3.4 Regional Epicenters
Part III Regions and Countries
1 England
1.1 Standard Southern British English
1.2 London and the Home Counties
1.3 The South and South-West
1.4 East Anglia
1.5 The Midlands – East and West
1.6 The North – Lower, Central, and Far North
2 The Celtic Regions
2.1 Scotland
2.2 Wales
2.3 Ireland
2.4 Isle of Man
3 Europe
3.1 Channel Islands
3.2 Gibraltar
3.3 Malta
4 North America
4.1 United States
4.2 Canada
5 The Caribbean
5.1 Caribbean Creoles
5.2 Eastern Caribbean
5.3 Western Caribbean
5.4 Caribbean Rim
6 Africa
6.1 West Africa
6.2 East Africa
6.3 Southern Africa
7 The South Atlantic
7.1 St. Helena
7.2 Tristan da Cunha
7.3 The Falkland Islands
8 Asia
8.1 South Asia
8.2 South-East Asia
8.3 East Asia
9 Australasia
9.1 Australia
9.2 New Zealand
10 The Pacific Region
10.1 Background to English in the Pacific
10.2 Melanesian Pidgin English
10.3 Micronesia
10.4 Ogasawara Islands
11 Pidgins and Creoles
11.1 English-Lexifier Pidgins and Creoles
11.2 Creoles: Theories of Origin
11.3 The Sound Systems of Pidgins and Creoles
12 World Englishes and Second-Language Varieties
12.1 Foreign Language Pronunciations
Outlook
Appendix A Timeline for Varieties of English
I. Within Britain
II. Northern Hemisphere
III. Southern Hemisphere
IV. Movements within the Anglophone World
Appendix B The History of English
B.1 Old English (450–1066)
B.2 Middle English (1066–1500)
B.3 Early Modern English (1500–1700)
B.4 Late Modern English (1700–1900)
B.5 Recommended Reading
Appendix C Transcription Conventions
Appendix D: Appendix DAppendix DLexical Sets and Extensions
End Notes
Glossary
Overviews
References
Linguistic Journals
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table I.1 Typologically unusual features in English.
Table I.2 Substitutions and mergers resulting from features of English.
Table I.3 Criteria for standard languages (Adapted from Haugen 2003 [1964]:...
Table I.4 Standard and vernacular realizations of
sandwich
.
Table I.5 Implicational scale for phonetic features in colloquial London En...
Table I.6 From intervocalic voicing to unpredictable sound alternation.
Table I.7 Loss of grammatical endings and the rise of systemic voiced frica...
Chapter 2
Table I.8 Generalizations about the sound system of English.
Table I.9 Syllable types in English.
Table I.10 Vowels of Received Pronunciation.
Table I.11 Movements of the diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ in vowel space.
Table I.12 Lexical sets for Received Pronunciation.
Table I.13 Approximate formant frequencies (F1 and F2).
Table I.14 Front long vowels in Early Modern English.
Table I.15 Long vowel systems with two mergers.
Table I.16 Merger of /eː/, /ɛ/, and /æ/ before /r/ in disyllables.
Table I.17 The Northern Cities Shift (USA).
Table I.18 The Southern Shift (USA).
Table I.19 Vowel shifts with opposite trajectories.
Table I.20 Place and manner of articulation.
Table I.21 The consonants of English.
Table I.22 Classification of English consonants by type.
Table I.23 Vocalization of L.
Table I.24 T-epenthesis in the history of English.
Table I.25 Occurrence of /juː/.
Table I.26 Typical pathways for lenition.
Table I.27 Lenition in some varieties of English.
Table I.28 Lenition stages in Irish English.
Table I.29 Classification of lenition alternatives in Irish English.
Table I.30 Types of R found in the anglophone world.
Table I.31 Options for L coloring with trajectories for vocalization.
Table I.32 Possible combinations of “clear” and “dark” L.
Table I.33 Languages by prosodic type.
Table I.34 Long–short vowels in words of varying syllable number.
Table I.35 Germanic and Romance stress types in English.
Chapter 3
Table I.36 Type of movements in sound systems.
Table I.37 Reasons for mergers arising.
Table I.38 Life-time spans for language change.
Table I.39 Features of early American English changed by external adoption....
Table I.40 How regular alternations became opaque in time.
Chapter 4
Table II.1 Taxonomy of colonies.
Chapter 5
Table II.2 Factors involved in shaping overseas varieties.
Table II.3 Classification of language contact scenarios.
Table II.4 Some major contact scenarios in the anglophone world.
Table II.5 Some major shift scenarios in the anglophone world.
Table II.6 Reasons for the loss of transported features in settler varietie...
Chapter 6
Table II.7 Major anglophone areas.
Table II.8 Epicenters in the modern anglophone world.
Chapter 7
Table III.1 Regions and centers in England.
Table III.2 Salient features of Standard Southern British English.
Table III.3 Salient features of Cockney.
Table III.4 Cockney rhyming slang.
Table III.5 Features of Estuary English/RP and Cockney.
Table III.6 Features found in Multicultural London English.
Table III.7 Salient features of basilectal British Black English.
Table III.8 Salient features of the South-West of England.
Table III.9 Salient features of Scouse.
Table III.10 East–West divide in the North of England.
Table III.11 Salient features of Tyneside English.
Chapter 8
Table III.12 Regions and centers in Scotland.
Table III.13 Salient features of moderate Scottish Standard English.
Table III.14 Further features of vernacular Glaswegian.
Table III.15 Regions and centers in Wales.
Table III.16 Regions and centers in Northern Ireland.
Table III.17 Regions and centers in the Republic of Ireland.
Table III.18 Salient features of present-day English in the Republic of Ire...
Table III.19 Salient features of conservative English in the Republic of Ir...
Table III.20 Salient features of local Dublin English.
Table III.21 Main sources of English in the North of Ireland.
Table III.22 Salient features of supraregional Northern Irish English.
Chapter 10
Table III.23 Salient features of supraregional American English.
Table III.24 Recent tendencies in supraregional American English.
Table III.25 Mergers in American English dialects.
Table III.26 Dialect regions of the United States.
Table III.27 Relic dialect areas in the United States.
Table III.28 Salient features of English in Southern Appalachia.
Table III.29 Ethnic varieties in the USA.
Table III.30 Regions and centers in Canada.
Table III.31 Salient features of supraregional Canadian English.
Table III.32 Salient features of Quebec English.
Chapter 11
Table III.33 Anglophone locations in the Caribbean.
Table III.34 Western and Eastern phonetic features of Caribbean English.
Table III.35 Salient features of basilectal Jamaican English.
Chapter 12
Table III.36 Anglophone locations in Africa.
Table III.37 Salient features of sub-Saharan African English.
Table III.38 South African Black English: a five-vowel system.
Chapter 16
Table III.39 Anglophone locations in the Pacific.
Table III.40 Varieties which developed from Melanesian Pidgin English.
Table III.41 Pidgin to English continuum in Hawai‘i.
Chapter 17
Table III.42 Scenarios for the development of pidgins and creoles.
Table III.43 Pidgins and creoles of the anglophone world.
Table III.44 Common features of creole phonology.
Chapter 18
Table III.45 Salient features of “New Englishes.”
Table III.46 Unusual features for languages in Africa and Asia.
Table III.47 Word-final voice contrasts in English.
Table III.48 Common equivalents to English ambi-dental fricatives.
Table III.49 Realizations of TRAP and STRUT.
Table III.50 TRAP–DRESS vowel contrasts in English.
Table III.51 Level stress patterns in English word groups.
Appendix B
Table B.1 Fricatives in the Old and Middle English periods.
Table B.2 Feature loss and gain from Old English to Middle English.
Table B.3 Development of Old English high front vowel.
Table B.4 Spelling and pronunciation of Middle English high/mid front vowel...
Table B.5 Respelling in the Early Modern Period.
Table B.6 The development of the Great Vowel Shift (1300–1800).
Table B.7 Relative chronology of French loans in English.
Table B.8 Shortening of /uː/ in the history of English.
Table B.9 Merger of /w/ and /ʍ/.
Table B.10 POOR=POUR=PAW merger.
Appendix C
Table C.1 Differences in the transcription of fricatives and affricates.
Table C.2 Differences in the transcription of vowels and approximants.
Appendix D
Table D.1 Lexical sets for Received Pronunciation.
Table D.2 Vocalic distinctions/splits; consonantal distinctions.
Table D.3 Extensions for vocalic lexical sets.
Table D.4 Common vocalic mergers.
Table D.5 Lexical sets for consonants in English.
Table D.6 Labels for common processes.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure I.1 Levels of language.
Figure I.2 Envelope of variation.
Figure I.3 Relative complexity of consonant clusters.
Figure I.4 Supraregional varieties.
Map I.1 Example of perceptual map drawing (Ireland, from Hickey 2005/With pe...
Chapter 2
Figure I.5 Basic syllable structure with relative sonority values.
Figure I.6Vowel quadrangle showing 16 cardinal vowels (left column un...
Figure I.7 Approximate positions of vowels in mouth (for English).
Figure I.8 First and second formant relative to vowels.
Figure I.9 Four-height-level vowel system (Middle English).
Figure I.10 Three-height-level vowel system (Modern English).
Figure I.12 Sonority cline between vowel nucleus and non-vocalic coda....
Figure I.13 NORTH≠FORCE distinction (spectrogram shows
for – four
), co...
Figure I.14 Lack of NORTH≠FORCE distinction (spectrogram shows
morning – mou
...
Figure I.15 MERRY=MARY merger with one female Dublin speaker.
Figure I.16 Places of articulation.
Figure I.17 WHICH≠WITCH distinction with a conservative Irish English speake...
Figure I.18 T-tapping in
letter
[lɛɾɚ], local Dublin speaker.
Figure I.19 Fricative T in
wet
[wɛtɛ], middle-aged Galway speaker.
Figure I.20 Glottal T in
wet
[wɛʔ], young Dublin male.
Figure I.21 Non-rhotic pronunciation of
bird
(no bending of F3).
Figure I.11 NURSE≠TERM distinction (
term – nurse,
vernacular Dublin sp...
Figure I.22 Uptalk (High-Rising Terminal); young Dublin female saying “I thi...
Figure I.23 Young female Scouse speaker saying “to avoid something”.
Figure I.24 F0 curve showing intonational pattern in Cork English.
Chapter 3
Figure I.25 S-curve of language change.
Figure I.26 The relative frequencies of recessive and incoming features acro...
Figure I.27 Different perspectives on the internal–external distinction.
Figure I.28 Approximate distribution of low unrounded STRUT vowel in Britain...
Figure I.29 Ejective pronunciation of word-final /k/ (Dublin, young females)...
Figure I.30 Finnish vowel system.
Figure I.31 Central Scandinavian Vowel Shift.
Figure I.32 GOAT-diphthongization.
Map I.2 Spread of Short Front Vowel Lowering.
Figure I.33 Short Front Vowel Lowering with four young Dublin females.
Figure I.34 Three degrees of lowering for the DRESS vowel (Dublin, three you...
Figure I.35 Rotation principle for vowels in English (outside North America)...
Chapter 4
Map II.1 Routes taken overseas from the British Isles during the colonial pe...
Map II.2 Source of slaves during colonial period.
Map II.3 Trade triangle during the colonial period.
Chapter 6
Map II.4 Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Map II.5 Major anglophone areas.
Map II.6 British Overseas Territories.
Chapter 7
Map III.1 The British Isles, consisting mainly of Britain and Ireland.
Map III.2 Counties of England.
Map III.3 Boroughs of London.
Map III.4 London and the Home Counties (with Sussex).
Map III.5 Location of Thames estuary.
Map III.6 West Country (with the South-West, Devon, and Cornwall).
Map III.7 East Anglia.
Map III.8 The Midlands area in central England.
Map III.9 North of England.
Map III.10 Metropolitan counties in the North of England.
Map III.11 Liverpool (Merseyside) with Manchester in its hinterland.
Map III.12 Ribble–Humber line in the North of England with the counties of L...
Map III.13 The Far North of England.
Chapter 8
Map III.14 Main regions of Scotland.
Map III.15 Wales.
Map III.16 Dialect divisions in Ireland.
Figure III.1 Spectrogram showing final consonants in KIT and KISS.
Figure III.2 Movements of Dublin Vowel Shift in the 1990s.
Figure III.3 Rising terminal, sentence:
They didn't bother to meet him
....
Map III.17 Isle of Man.
Chapter 9
Map III.18 The Channel Islands.
Map III.19 Gibraltar.
Map III.20 Malta.
Chapter 10
Map III.21 The original Thirteen Colonies (before 1776).
Map III.22 Main movements to and within the (later) United States.
Map III.23 Main dialect regions of the United States.
Map III.24 American South.
Map III.25 Area of Southern Appalachian speech in the United States.
Map III.26 Ocracoke Island, North Carolina.
Map III.27 African American diaspora.
Map III.28 Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina/Georgia.
Map III.29 Original south-west area of Chicano English.
Map III.30 Canada (regions).
Map III.31 St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes of central Canada.
Map III.32 Newfoundland.
Map III.33 The Maritimes, Canada.
Chapter 11
Map III.34 The Caribbean.
Map III.35 Jamaica.
Chapter 12
Map III.36 Anglophone regions of Africa.
Map III.37 African language families.
Map III.38 Provinces of present-day South Africa.
Map III.39 South Africa.
Map III.40 Late nineteenth-century Indian immigration into South Africa.
Chapter 13
Map III.41 St. Helena and Tristan da Cunha with the Falklands in the South A...
Map III.42 St. Helena.
Map III.43 Tristan da Cunha.
Map III.44 The Falklands.
Chapter 14
Map III.45 South Asia.
Map III.46 Languages of South Asia.
Map III.47 India.
Map III.48 Sri Lanka.
Map III.49 Malaysia.
Map III.50 Singapore.
Map III.51 The Philippines.
Map III.52 China.
Map III.53 Hong Kong.
Chapter 15
Map III.54 Australia – first European division of country.
Map III.55 Australia – present-day states.
Map III.56 New Zealand.
Chapter 16
Map III.57 Austronesian languages.
Map III.58 Tripartite ethnic division of the Pacific region.
Figure III.4 Melanesian Pidgin English and its derivatives.
Map III.59 Hawai‘i.
Map III.60 Papua New Guinea.
Map III.61 Fiji.
Map III.62 Ogasawara Islands.
Chapter 17
Map III.63 Major groups of anglophone pidgins and creoles.
Chapter 18
Map III.64 Main New Englishes regions of Africa and Asia.
Figure III.5 Two five-vowel systems common in New Englishes.
Appendix B
Map B.1 Sources of Germanic tribes who settled in Britain.
Map B.2 Dialects of Old English.
Map B.3 Dialects of Middle English.
Figure B.1 Raising of mid vowels and diphthongization of high vowels; origin...
Figure B.2 The rise of the STRUT vowel in the Early/Late Modern Period.
Figure B.3 “Horizon” from
A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary
.
Figure B.4 “Duke” from
A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary
.
Appendix C
Figure C.1 Chart of the International Phonetic Association (revised to 2015)...
Guide
Cover Page
Copyright
List of Maps
Preface
How to Use this Book
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Outlook
Appendix A Appendix ATimeline for Varieties of English
Appendix B The History of English
Appendix C Transcription Conventions
Appendix D Lexical Sets and Extensions
End Notes
Glossary
Overviews
References
Linguistic Journals
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Sounds of English Worldwide
Raymond Hickey
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataNames: Hickey, Raymond, 1954– author.Title: Sounds of English worldwide / Raymond Hickey.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2022053611 (print) | LCCN 2022053612 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119131274 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119131281 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119131298 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: English language—Pronunciation. | English language—Variation.Classification: LCC PE1137 .H53 2023 (print) | LCC PE1137 (ebook) | DDC 427—dc23/eng/20221221LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022053611LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022053612
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © ildogesto/Shutterstock
List of Maps
Map I.1
Example of perceptual map drawing (Ireland, from Hickey 2005/With permission of John Benjamins Publishing Company).
Map I.2
Spread of Short Front Vowel Lowering.
Map II.1
Routes taken overseas from the British Isles during the colonial period.
Map II.2
Source of slaves during colonial period.
Map II.3
Trade triangle during the colonial period.
Map II.4
Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Map II.5
Major anglophone areas.
Map II.6
British Overseas Territories.
Map III.1
The British Isles, consisting mainly of Britain and Ireland.
Map III.2
Counties of England.
Map III.3
Boroughs of London.
Map III.4
London and the Home Counties (with Sussex).
Map III.5
Location of Thames estuary.
Map III.6
West Country (with the South‐West, Devon, and Cornwall).
Map III.7
East Anglia.
Map III.8
The Midlands area in central England.
Map III.9
North of England.
Map III.10
Metropolitan counties in the North of England.
Map III.11
Liverpool (Merseyside) with Manchester in its hinterland.
Map III.12
Ribble–Humber line in the North of England with the counties of Lancashire and Yorkshire.
Map III.13
The Far North of England.
Map III.14
Main regions of Scotland.
Map III.15
Wales.
Map III.16
Dialect divisions in Ireland.
Map III.17
Isle of Man.
Map III.18
The Channel Islands.
Map III.19
Gibraltar.
Map III.20
Malta.
Map III.21
The original Thirteen Colonies (before 1776).
Map III.22
Main movements to and within the (later) United States.
Map III.23
Main dialect regions of the United States.
Map III.24
American South.
Map III.25
Area of Southern Appalachian speech in the United States.
Map III.26
Ocracoke Island, North Carolina.
Map III.27
African American diaspora.
Map III.28
Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina/Georgia.
Map III.29
Original south‐west area of Chicano English.
Map III.30
Canada (regions).
Map III.31
St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes of central Canada.
Map III.32
Newfoundland.
Map III.33
The Maritimes, Canada.
Map III.34
The Caribbean.
Map III.35
Jamaica.
Map III.36
Anglophone regions of Africa.
Map III.37
African language families.
Map III.38
Provinces of present‐day South Africa.
Map III.39
South Africa.
Map III.40
Late nineteenth‐century Indian immigration into South Africa.
Map III.41
St. Helena and Tristan da Cunha with the Falklands in the South Atlantic.
Map III.42
St. Helena.
Map III.43
Tristan da Cunha.
Map III.44
The Falklands.
Map III.45
South Asia.
Map III.46
Languages of South Asia.
Map III.47
India.
Map III.48
Sri Lanka.
Map III.49
Malaysia.
Map III.50
Singapore.
Map III.51
The Philippines.
Map III.52
China.
Map III.53
Hong Kong.
Map III.54
Australia – first European division of country.
Map III.55
Australia – present‐day states.
Map III.56
New Zealand.
Map III.57
Austronesian languages.
Map III.58
Tripartite ethnic division of the Pacific region.
Map III.59
Hawai‘i.
Map III.60
Papua New Guinea.
Map III.61
Fiji.
Map III.62
Ogasawara Islands.
Map III.63
Major groups of anglophone pidgins and creoles.
Map III.64
Main New Englishes regions of Africa and Asia.
Map B.1
Sources of Germanic tribes who settled in Britain.
Map B.2
Dialects of Old English.
Map B.3
Dialects of Middle English.
List of Tables
Table I.1
Typologically unusual features in English.
Table I.2
Substitutions and mergers resulting from features of English.
Table I.3
Criteria for standard languages (Adapted from Haugen 2003 [1964]: 421).
Table I.4
Standard and vernacular realizations of
sandwich
.
Table I.5
Implicational scale for phonetic features in colloquial London English.
Table I.6
From intervocalic voicing to unpredictable sound alternation.
Table I.7
Loss of grammatical endings and the rise of systemic voiced fricatives.
Table I.8
Generalizations about the sound system of English.
Table I.9
Syllable types in English.
Table I.10
Vowels of Received Pronunciation.
Table I.11
Movements of the diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aʊ/ in vowel space.
Table I.12
Lexical sets for Received Pronunciation.
Table I.13
Approximate formant frequencies (F1 and F2).
Table I.14
Front long vowels in Early Modern English.
Table I.15
Long vowel systems with two mergers.
Table I.16
Merger of /eː/, /ɛ/, and /æ/ before /r/ in disyllables.
Table I.17
The Northern Cities Shift (USA).
Table I.18
The Southern Shift (USA).
Table I.19
Vowel shifts with opposite trajectories.
Table I.20
Place and manner of articulation.
Table I.21
The consonants of English.
Table I.22
Classification of English consonants by type.
Table I.23
Vocalization of L.
Table I.24
T‐epenthesis in the history of English.
Table I.25
Occurrence of /juː/.
Table I.26
Typical pathways for lenition.
Table I.27
Lenition in some varieties of English.
Table I.28
Lenition stages in Irish English.
Table I.29
Classification of lenition alternatives in Irish English.
Table I.30
Types of R found in the anglophone world.
Table I.31
Options for L coloring with trajectories for vocalization.
Table I.32
Possible combinations of “clear” and “dark” L.
Table I.33
Languages by prosodic type.
Table I.34
Long–short vowels in words of varying syllable number.
Table I.35
Germanic and Romance stress types in English.
Table I.36
Type of movements in sound systems.
Table I.37
Reasons for mergers arising.
Table I.38
Life‐time spans for language change.
Table I.39
Features of early American English changed by external adoption.
Table I.40
How regular alternations became opaque in time.
Table II.1
Taxonomy of colonies.
Table II.2
Factors involved in shaping overseas varieties.
Table II.3
Classification of language contact scenarios.
Table II.4
Some major contact scenarios in the anglophone world.
Table II.5
Some major shift scenarios in the anglophone world.
Table II.6
Reasons for the loss of transported features in settler varieties.
Table II.7
Major anglophone areas.
Table II.8
Epicenters in the modern anglophone world.
Table III.1
Regions and centers in England.
Table III.2
Salient features of Standard Southern British English.
Table III.3
Salient features of Cockney.
Table III.4
Cockney rhyming slang.
Table III.5
Features of Estuary English/RP and Cockney.
Table III.6
Features found in Multicultural London English.
Table III.7
Salient features of basilectal British Black English.
Table III.8
Salient features of the South‐West of England.
Table III.9
Salient features of Scouse.
Table III.10
East–West divide in the North of England.
Table III.11
Salient features of Tyneside English.
Table III.12
Regions and centers in Scotland.
Table III.13
Salient features of moderate Scottish Standard English.
Table III.14
Further features of vernacular Glaswegian.
Table III.15
Regions and centers in Wales.
Table III.16
Regions and centers in Northern Ireland.
Table III.17
Regions and centers in the Republic of Ireland.
Table III.18
Salient features of present‐day English in the Republic of Ireland.
Table III.19
Salient features of conservative English in the Republic of Ireland.
Table III.20
Salient features of local Dublin English.
Table III.21
Main sources of English in the North of Ireland.
Table III.22
Salient features of supraregional Northern Irish English.
Table III.23
Salient features of supraregional American English.
Table III.24
Recent tendencies in supraregional American English.
Table III.25
Mergers in American English dialects.
Table III.26
Dialect regions of the United States.
Table III.27
Relic dialect areas in the United States.
Table III.28
Salient features of English in Southern Appalachia.
Table III.29
Ethnic varieties in the USA.
Table III.30
Regions and centers in Canada.
Table III.31
Salient features of supraregional Canadian English.
Table III.32
Salient features of Quebec English.
Table III.33
Anglophone locations in the Caribbean.
Table III.34
Western and Eastern phonetic features of Caribbean English.
Table III.35
Salient features of basilectal Jamaican English.
Table III.36
Anglophone locations in Africa.
Table III.37
Salient features of sub‐Saharan African English.
Table III.38
South African Black English: a five‐vowel system.
Table III.39
Anglophone locations in the Pacific.
Table III.40
Varieties which developed from Melanesian Pidgin English.
Table III.41
Pidgin to English continuum in Hawai‘i.
Table III.42
Scenarios for the development of pidgins and creoles.
Table III.43
Pidgins and creoles of the anglophone world.
Table III.44
Common features of creole phonology.
Table III.45
Salient features of “New Englishes.”
Table III.46
Unusual features for languages in Africa and Asia.
Table III.47
Word‐final voice contrasts in English.
Table III.48
Common equivalents to English ambi‐dental fricatives.
Table III.49
Realizations of TRAP and STRUT.
Table III.50
TRAP–DRESS vowel contrasts in English.
Table III.51
Level stress patterns in English word groups.
Table B.1
Fricatives in the Old and Middle English periods.
Table B.2
Feature loss and gain from Old English to Middle English.
Table B.3
Development of Old English high front vowel.
Table B.4
Spelling and pronunciation of Middle English high/mid front vowels.
Table B.5
Respelling in the Early Modern Period.
Table B.6
The development of the Great Vowel Shift (1300–1800).
Table B.7
Relative chronology of French loans in English.
Table B.8
Shortening of /uː/ in the history of English.
Table B.9
Merger of /w/ and /ʍ/.
Table B.10
POOR=POUR=PAW merger.
Table C.1
Differences in the transcription of fricatives and affricates.
Table C.2
Differences in the transcription of vowels and approximants.
Table D.1
Lexical sets for Received Pronunciation.
Table D.2
Vocalic distinctions/splits; consonantal distinctions.
Table D.3
Extensions for vocalic lexical sets.
Table D.4
Common vocalic mergers.
Table D.5
Lexical sets for consonants in English.
Table D.6
Labels for common processes.
List of Abbreviations
RP
Received Pronunciation
MAE
Mainstream American English
OE
Old English
ME
Middle English
EME
Early Modern English
LME
Late Modern English
ModE
Modern English
SSBE
Supraregional Southern British English
Preface
English is one of a small group of languages, to which Spanish and Portuguese also belong, which spread across the globe during the colonial period giving rise to many varieties overseas which form the focus of the present book. One can read this book for a number of reasons, e.g. to find out about different varieties of English, a very practical reason, or to learn more about phonology (sound systems) on the basis of variation in English. To accommodate both sets of potential readers, the book is divided into two parts. The first discusses general issues surrounding the study of varieties of English and change in the language while the second provides summaries of the main features of various varieties of English worldwide. This book is about pronunciation, that is, about one level of language but one which is intricately connected to the other levels: grammar, vocabulary, and language use. Readers not acquainted with phonetics and with sound transcription should consult Appendixes C and D on this subject and use the glossary at the back of the book. To learn about lexical sets and how they are used in variety studies readers should consult Part I, Section 2 and Appendix D for more information.
Books on phonetics are generally written by authors who are native speakers of the variety being used as a reference accent. English authors, such as Daniel Jones, A.C. Gimson, and J.C. Wells, and American authors, such as John Samuel Kenyon and Thomas A. Knott, were/are speakers of Received Pronunciation and Mainstream American English respectively (exceptions are books written by non-native teachers of English phonetics). The situation is different in my case. My native pronunciation is a somewhat conservative supraregional form of Southern Irish English. But throughout my academic career I have discussed (and taught) English phonetics with my students on the basis of Received Pronunciation, so I feel comfortable using this as the reference accent for English on the European side of the Atlantic and using Mainstream American English as that for English in North America. In addition, Received Pronunciation works well as a point of departure when describing Southern Hemisphere varieties of English. It hardly needs to be said that reference accents have no inherent merit or privileged status – this book is about all varieties of English, which are treated equally, irrespective of the number of speakers of a variety or the political status and power of the country where it is spoken. The concern here is with variation across the English-speaking world, and a feature attested in Appalachian, Shetland, Ugandan, Philippine, or Fijian English has the same inherent linguistic value as a feature from Received Pronunciation or Mainstream American English.
In the pages of the present book much information about the history of English can be found. There are good reasons for this. The sound system of English has undergone major changes during its history and it is instructive, when attempting to understand present-day forms, to consider the pathways which sound change in the past has taken. Furthermore, the varieties of English throughout the world stem in large part from input forms in previous centuries – as a by-product of the colonial enterprise – and so previous stages of the language must be considered to grasp what features were characteristic of the earliest varieties in former colonies of Britain.
A book like the present one will bear the mark of its author. There are so many decisions to be made, not so much about what to cover, but about what to highlight, where to put a focus, how much space to allot and what weight to accord different topics. And naturally, when providing examples, an author will gravitate toward the variety they know best, their own linguistic comfort zone, so to speak. Thus this book would look very different if written by an English speaker of Received Pronunciation, an African American, a South African, an Indian, a Singaporean, or a Scottish scholar, to list just a few possibilities. Nonetheless, I have strived to produce a book which would be acceptable to as wide an audience as possible. It is intended to be eclectic and inclusive of all kinds of varieties found today. As can be seen from Part III, English today consists of a complex kaleidoscope of diverse forms. It is not possible to describe each of these in detail. Instead the approach has been to highlight features of a given variety, area, or type, offer illustrative examples, and provide references which can be used by readers who might wish to further pursue some matter beyond the current context.
This book represents a snapshot of variation in English pronunciation across the world in the early 2020s. Will the variation described here lead to new features establishing themselves in the near future? We simply do not know. Linguists have seen and analyzed many cases in the past where variation resulted in change, but predicting the future is a very different matter, given the broad range of language-internal and social factors whose values and relative weight cannot be determined in advance. However, if this book succeeds in engendering an awareness of the variation in the pronunciation of English worldwide, along with its possible sources and causes, then I have achieved the goal I set myself in writing it. Whether this is the case or not is up to the readers to decide.
I owe a debt of gratitude to the anonymous reviewers at the beginning and end of the project as well to my many colleagues who kindly provided me with much constructive criticism, above all Joseph Salmons, Christopher Strelluf, and James Grama.
Lastly my thanks also go to the friendly and encouraging staff at Wiley Blackwell, especially Laura Adsett, Anya Fielding, Rachel Greenberg, Rosie Hayden, and my copy editor, Giles Flitney, as well as to Gopinath Anbalagan for their continual support and professional advice on various matters concerning the preparation and production of the book.
Waterford
Summer 2022
How to Use this Book
The current book has been written for both scholars and students who are interested in learning about how English is pronounced throughout the world. It can be read without too great a knowledge of linguistics, but a basic acquaintance with the transcription system of the International Phonetic Alphabet is assumed. For those readers who perhaps do not feel entirely confident with this, it is recommended that they consult a practical book on phonetic transcription to brush up their knowledge of this field (see Overviews in the reference section at the back of the book).
If one were to ask what the narrative in this book is, the common thread running through the various sections, then the answer would be to examine the sound system of English and to consider in detail variation and change as it has occurred in different areas leading to all the varieties we recognize in the English-speaking world today. To this end the book has been organized into sections as shown below. Note that in the first part, for reasons of space, many topics are discussed in brief single-paragraph sections. Because of their number, these sections are not listed in the table of contents but their location in the text can be ascertained via the index.
Language and Variation
Studying Variation in Sound
An introduction to language variation and change providing short summaries of key issues in the field.
The Sound System of English
An overview of the main elements and processes which constitute the sound system of English.
Sound Change in English
Discusses how to analyze change in sound systems and provides an overview of trends in present-day varieties of English.
The Spread of English
The Colonial Period
A brief description of how English came to spread overseas during colonial times.
Transported Dialect Features
A discussion of the main features of English dialects taken overseas from the regions of Britain and Ireland.
English in the World Today
An outline of the geographical distribution of English in the world today with a discussion of the regions that have come to act as models for others.
Regions and Countries
England
An overview of varieties of English in England today with a discussion of urban and rural forms in the different geographical regions.
The Celtic Regions
A synopsis of forms of English spoken in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland with consideration of the possible effects of the Celtic languages on forms of English in these regions.
Europe
A description of English as spoken in three small locations in continental Europe, i.e. the Channel Islands, Gibraltar, and Malta.
North America
4.1) The United States
An overview of the main forms of English spoken in the United States ranging from urban varieties to those in rural relic areas. Ethnic varieties, such as African American English and Chicano English, have dedicated sections.
4.2) Canada
An outline of supraregional speech in Canada as well as a consideration of ethnic and regional varieties.
The Caribbean
A summary of the different forms of English in the anglophone Caribbean, what features they show, and how they came to have their particular forms.
Africa
6.1) West Africa
English as spoken in the countries, which are found along the southern coast of the west of Africa, from Cameroon to The Gambia, discussed in various sections.
6.2) East Africa
A summary of features of English found in the three main anglophone countries of East Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.
6.3) Southern Africa
An overview of English as spoken in the main anglophone countries of southern Africa with special attention paid to the ethnic varieties of English in South Africa.
The South Atlantic
A summary of English as spoken on the small anglophone islands of the South Atlantic, i.e. St. Helena, Tristan da Cunha, and the Falkland Islands.
Asia
8.1) South Asia
A discussion of English as spoken today in India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka with consideration of the colonial background to these present-day countries.
8.2) South-East Asia
An overview of English as spoken in this region, in Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore on the one hand and in The Philippines on the other hand.
8.3) East Asia
A discussion of the role of English as a second language in the East Asian countries China, Korea, and Japan with a dedicated section on English in the former British colony of Hong Kong.
Australasia
Varieties of English in Australia and New Zealand are discussed here with information on their historical development and present-day forms.
The Pacific Region
The anglophone locations in the three major ethnic divisions of the Pacific, Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia, are discussed here with historical information on how they arose.
Pidgins and Creoles
The sound systems of English-lexifier pidgins and creoles are considered here with a discussion of their typology and possible interrelatedness.
World Englishes and Second-Language Varieties
English as a global second language is the highlight in this section which considers the broad characteristics of foreign language pronunciations of English.
Outlook
The main text concludes with a discussion of how English might develop in the course of the twenty-first century and how the relationship of first- to second-language varieties will pan out, indeed whether this distinction will retain validity as the century progresses.
Additional material
The book also contains a number of appendixes which are geared toward providing summary information on a number of areas as follows.
Appendix A
Timeline for Varieties of English
Appendix B
The History of English
Appendix C
Transcription Conventions
Appendix D
Lexical Sets and Extensions
There is also a glossary of the main terms found in discussions of varieties of English and a comprehensive set of references along with a list of linguistic journals. These sections should be consulted when looking for further information about the issues and varieties discussed in the book.
Part ILanguage and Variation
1Studying Variation in Sound
1.1 Introduction
English is the most widespread language in the world today, both geographically – present on five continents – and demographically – spoken as a first or second language by several billion people. The distribution and the functional expansion, which English has experienced over the past few hundred years, has of necessity led to variation in the way the language is spoken and used. For the world in the early twenty-first century an important consideration is the degree to which English is employed as a second language by great numbers of people across the globe (Schneider 2020). Indeed there are many more second-language speakers than there are first-language speakers and the boundaries between these groups are becoming increasingly blurred given that they form a continuum rather than two separate blocks. Nonetheless, at one end of this continuum one has speakers who use English as a native language among others in the same position, and at the other end there are people who have a different native language and only use English in specific domains of their society or when engaging with others who do not share their native language. Linguists generally make a distinction here between countries where English is used as a second language, in the economy, technology, and science, as well as in official and/or public contexts, and those countries where people only have recourse to English with individuals who do not understand each others' languages. English in such situations is technically known as “English as a second language” and “English as a foreign language” respectively. The latter type, in its pronunciation, is heavily influenced by the sound systems of other languages, while the former group is perhaps less so, but there is often more intermingling among users of English as a first language and users of English as a second language and hence the chance of mutual influence is greater. For the current book the sound systems of both first- and second-language English will form a focus, with the former receiving the bulk of the attention. Nonetheless, the situation of English as a second and foreign language will also be taken into account, especially given the burgeoning numbers of people in this group across the globe (see Section III.12).
Why the Label “Variety”?
It is necessary to specify at the outset what is understood by “varieties of English” (Hickey 2014a; Bauer 2002). The label is taken to refer to any forms of English which have a recognizable sound profile making them identifiable as separate from other forms.1 Thus the label “variety of English” applies to many different forms of English and avoids the connotation which may sometimes adhere to the label “dialect” as a conservative rural form of English (Wakelin ed., 1972, 1984), spoken mostly by older males.2 Varieties can refer equally to urban and rural forms of language, to local and less local forms.
Importantly for the current book, the label “varieties of English” has an additional historical dimension to it. Forms of the language were taken to overseas locations during the colonial period – roughly from the early seventeenth to the late nineteenth centuries – and developed in specific ways, depending on such factors as regional English input and the demographic composition of early settler groups. In this context the adjective “overseas” simply means “beyond the islands of Britain and Ireland” and is not intended to carry any connotation of anglocentricity or imply any evaluative stance.
Further factors were the social status of the settlers relative to each other and conditions at the overseas locations, particularly whether the latter developed to become independent nations with their own standards of English. In this sense the study of varieties of English is closely linked to what is known as new dialect formation (Trudgill 1986, 2004; Hickey 2003a), the rise of new varieties from a mixture of inputs at locations outside the British Isles. Here examining possible historical connections between older and newer varieties plays a major role.
When discussing varieties it is common to use the plural noun “Englishes,” e.g. World Englishes. This is now established practice and the plural label is often used for forms of English outside Britain, e.g. in the phrase New Englishes, Asian Englishes, or Pacific Englishes. See Section III.12.
Finally, I should say that I am aware of recent discussions which criticize the blanket use of language names, like English, Spanish, etc., and which stress the fluidity of language, especially in high-contact urban contexts (the locus of superdiversity as originally envisaged by Vertovec 2007), often focusing on translanguaging, the simultaneous use of several languages in communicative contexts. This does not, however, invalidate the notion of an underlying sound system which is shared by first-language speakers of English (though this does not necessarily apply to creoles). It is this common stock of systemic knowledge which justifies the use of a general label “English” when talking about varieties in the present book.
Phonetics and Personal Identity
Phonetics is the level of language which is closest bound to personal identity. Firstly, the pronunciation of language (for native speakers) is based on acquisition in early childhood, and the nuances of one's accent become hard-wired into the neuronal circuits responsible for your production of language. Secondly, once you start speaking, your language is open to assessment by others, much more so than for other levels of language like syntax or vocabulary. This means that the sociolinguistic significance of phonetics is far greater than that of other levels of language (Sharma forthcoming) and explains why the concern of sociolinguists has first and foremost been with sound whereas formal linguists primarily investigate sentence structure with related aspects from other levels also considered. The primacy of sound in sociolinguistics explains why there is a subfield called sociophonetics (E. Thomas 2011; Di Paolo and Yaeger-Dror eds, 2011; Celata and Calamai eds, 2014; Stanford 2019; Kendall and Fridland 2021) but none called sociosyntax or sociolexis. Sociophonetics is a starting point, looking at variation in minute detail, but this can later lead to insights on the phonological level, i.e. on that of the system of sounds.
Accent
Everyone has an accent: it is the manner in which they pronounce the sounds of their language. However, people normally only become aware of an accent when it is used by another person and different from their own. Very often accent, especially when qualified, e.g. “strong accent,” “marked accent,” etc., is used to claim that someone does not speak the standard form of a language (even when it is not specified just what is meant by this). Concern with accents and issues of pronunciation are matters which command broad public attention as publications like Wells (2014, 2016) amply testify.
Someone's accent is largely determined in childhood when the fine motor control for the articulation of sounds and the delicate configuration of the oral tract is fixed (see previous section). The neuronal innervation of muscles in the mouth and throat, necessary for sound production, is then hard-wired in a speaker's brain and results in their specific accent of their native language, generally that which corresponds to the regional and/or social identification which an individual has. Because brains retain plasticity all through life, it is possible for innervation patterns to be altered somewhat, the result being a change in accent for an individual, this being part of what is termed “lifespan change” in recent sociolinguistics (Salmons 2021: 103–104; Sharma et al. 2021; Buchstaller and Evans Wagner forthcoming). The reasons for such change are manifold and many of them will be discussed in the course of the present book.
The term “accent” has a further meaning in phonetics: it can refer to the stress placed on a syllable of a word or the type of stress used by a language (volume, length, and/or pitch). In the International Phonetic Alphabet primary accent is shown with a superscript vertical stroke placed before the stressed syllable as in polite [pəˈlaɪt]. A subscript stroke indicates secondary stress, e.g. a ˈblackˌbird (compound word), a type of bird, versus a ˈblack ˈbird (syntactic group), a bird which happens to be black, e.g. a crow. In the present book I will try to avoid this second use of “accent” and instead use “stress” for clarity's sake.
Terms for Accents
In the sense of pronunciation, accent has a number of alternatives and qualifications which are mostly found outside linguistics. The difficulty here is that these terms are often imprecise so it is hard to know what is being referred to. When someone talks of another as having a “broad” accent, what do they mean? Maybe “typically vernacular,” as in He speaks with a broad Boston accent. And what does a “flat” accent refer to? Again, probably “strongly local.” Sometimes speakers mix topography and accent as when Irish people talk about the “flat Midlands accent,” just because the Midlands is a large flat expanse in the center of Ireland. There is, however, a semi-linguistic tradition3 of referring to a front [æ]-vowel as “flat” and a back [ɑ]-vowel as “broad,” a tradition which goes back to commentators on language use in the eighteenth century.
Labels for accents come in different shapes and sizes. “Twang” is used when speakers think that others' speech has a nasal quality, though no variety of English has phonological nasal vowels like French or Polish. “Drawl” is used to denote that someone's speech is slow and drawn out and is often found when referring to typical speakers of Southern American English, often conflating a putative slow life style in a warm climate with accent.
Some terms have definite positive connotations, used in admiration of someone's accent, e.g. “lilt” or “cadence.” The term “brogue” is an Irish term (which probably comes from the meaning “knot in the tongue” in that language) and is used for a strongly local accent. It is also found in the United States, e.g. with reference to local speech on Ocracoke island, North Carolina.
