The Complete Royal Mummies of Ancient Egypt: Part 3 E-Book

Michael E. Habicht

• Herausgeber: epubli
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 298

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

The Complete Royal Mummies of Ancient Egypt: Identifications of Ancient Egyptian Royal Mummies and burials from the Old Kingdom to Modern Age re-assessed. Part 3: E-Book edition (shortened and adapted for E-reader) Bioarchaeological investigations of Ancient Egyptian Mummies: Immerse yourself in the fascinating world of the royal mummies of ancient Egypt. This two-volume work presents the current state of knowledge on the identification of the royal mummies and offers an in-depth look at the complex scientific methodology used to unravel their secrets. Volume one guides you through the historical information, such as ancient restoration inscriptions applied by the priests of the Third Intermediate Period when repairing the mummies, as well as the changing techniques of mummification, which provide important clues to the dating and positioning of individuals within the various royal families. Numerous royal mummies are presented as individual case studies to give you a detailed insight into their identification. In the second volume you will find craniometric data, some rulers of the medieval period whose tombs have survived, as well as the khedives, sultans and kings of the modern period and their wives. In addition, you will find forensic facial reconstructions and other illustrations to help you gain an even more accurate picture of these fascinating personalities. The books are an indispensable reference work for anyone interested in the history of ancient Egypt and the fascinating world of royal mummies. Immerse yourself in the world of the pharaohs and discover the secrets of their mummies! The e-book is intended as a supplement for travelling and is therefore defined as volume 3

Leseprobe

Michael E. Habicht

The Complete Royal Mummies of Ancient Egypt

Identifications of Ancient Egyptian Royal Mummies from the Old Kingdom to the Greco-Roman period re-assessed

E-Book edition

Preface to the e-book edition

This electronic book is an adaptation of the printed, two-volume edition [1–3]. Due to the data tables and the numerous illustrations, this is only partially suitable for an e-book edition, which should run without problems on most readers. The publication has therefore been technically revised and modified for an Epub-file that runs as error-free as possible. Only some of the illustrations have been reproduced and tables have been redesigned or simplified. The citation style has also been changed (Vancouver citation style instead of Harvard citation style).

The e-book is intended as a supplement for travelling is therefore defined as volume 3 [4].

Introduction

For centuries, ancient Egyptian Royal mummies have drawn the attention both of the general public and scientists. Many royal mummies have survived, especially from the New Kingdom. The topic royal Egyptian mummies has been previously addressed by the author of this meta-analysis and others in various articles and monographs [5–11]. Therefore, certain sections of the text are taken in a similar form from the earlier publications provided that there are no changes in the scientific interpretation and no new research literature has appeared. In 2021, numerous royal mummies were transferred from the National Museum in Tahrir Square to the new museum NMEC (National Museum for Egyptian Culture) in a grandiose procession [12]. Therefore, the place of storage has now been adapted. The present study presents a combination and extension of previous meta-analyses and publications. The various methods and pitfalls in the identifications of the pharaohs is examined and evaluated, since new scientific methods can be used, such as ancient DNA-profiling and CT-scanning. While the ancestors of Tutankhamun have been identified, some identities are still highly controversial (e.g., the mystery of the KV-55 skeleton).

For centuries, ancient Egyptian mummies have been an important subject for scientific studies [13–15] and many other research fields (e.g. Egyptology, Anthropology, Paleopathology). Royal mummies are of particular interest to historians and the reconstruction of the lives of the famous kings and queens of Ancient Egypt. The identity of some mummies has remained controversial since their discovery. The first royal mummies (which are covered here in this article) were found in an undecorated tomb in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor (KV 21), in 1817 by Giovanni Battista Belzoni (1778-1823). The two mummies found there appear to have been robbed and damaged by vandals after the initial opening in 1817 [16].

The first significant discovery was made by members of the Abd el-Rassul family, who found the Deir el-Bahari cachet (DB 320) in the mid-1870s. The authorities learned of the existence of this mummy cache in the late summer of 1881 and Emil Brugsch (1842-1930) was assigned to empty the cachette in great haste.

In the process, 45 mummies of kings, and of high priests of Amun were found. They cover the period from the 17th to the 20th dynasty (kings) and the 21st and early 22nd dynasty (high priests) [14,17–20]. The structure of DB 320 was documented imprecisely (by modern standards) and thus the original locations of some mummies remain unclear [21,22]. Due to the secondary used coffins, which have secondary identification inscriptions attached during restoration, there are clear clues from antiquity for many royal mummies as to who they were. A coffin was also intended for Ramses I, but no mummy could be found for this coffin. Therefore, there are speculations that the Abd el-Rassuls could have taken this mummy out and sold it. It is debated whether the mummy from the Carlos Museum USA, now in the Luxor Museum, is Ramses I [23].

The next important discovery was made in 1898 by the Frenchman Victor Loret, who discovered another cachette with numerous royal mummies in the royal tomb KV 35 of Amenhotep II [20,24]. The priests of the 3rd Intermediate Period had used the royal tomb of the Middle 18th Dynasty as a secondary hiding place for royal mummies.

One mummy was lying in the former tomb owner’s stone sarcophagus, nine mummies were found in a side-room, another three were in second side-room, and a damaged mummy in a small boat was found in the antechamber of the tomb but this disappeared a few years later and has not surfaced to this day. The male mummy is at least photographically documented. Tomb KV 46 in the Valley of the Kings is also important, as the in-laws of King Amenhotep III were found buried there in situ. They are an extremely important genetic anchor for the identification of the mummies from the Amarna period. In addition, the Amarna Cachette KV 55 was found in 1907, and the tomb of Tutankhamun KV 62 in 1922.

Some of these mummies - some vitally important ancestors of the Thutmoside royal house ruling in the 18th Dynasty - have been investigated by means of molecular genetics [25]. That investigation triggered many theories and a major controversy in the field of Egyptology [26,27,36–44,28–35].

Material

This new study broadens the topic of royal mummies widely, beginning in the Early Dynastic period and ending in the Ptolemaic era. Despite this expansion, the mummies of the New Kingdom continue to dominate numerically.

Few of the mummies covered here were found in situ as an original burial. For the royal families they are these: Queen Meresankh III, King Tutankhamun found in KV 62 (still in situ), and the parents-in-law of King Amenhotep III: Yuya (Cairo Nat, Mus. CG 51190) and his wife Thuya (Cairo Nat. Mus. CG 51191) in KV 46 [45,46]. Their identity is not disputed [32]. The mummy of Amenhotep II was removed, restored and returned back in this original tomb KV 35. The identification of the female mummy KV 60A as Queen Hatshepsut is still unsolved [47–51]. Purported diseases of Akhenaton and the many causes of death of Tutankhamun do not help in identification and were also excluded.

Mummies from the Old Kingdom

Research on royal mummies from the Old Kingdom is in its infancy because, although several mummified remains have been found in situ, they are often skeletal or in a deplorable state of mummy fragments. In contrast to the mummies of the New Kingdom, hardly any scientific research exists. Therefore, the findings available so far are summarized here

Mummy remains are known from the pyramid of Djoser (3rd Dynasty) (Cairo University Hospital No. AI 490) However, they are considered to be later secondary burial [52–56].

Also, in the pyramid of Djoser a female mummy was found, which is considered to be the remains of a princess, they could be from the 3rd dynasty at best [5,57].

Remains of King Seneferu may have survived time in his Red Pyramid [58]. Parts of the skull and parts of the postcranial skeleton are known. They belong to a man past his middle age. In view of the recorded reign, Seneferu would have accessed the throne at a young man. The presence of resin on the inside of the skull suggests the removal of the brain which might indicate a much later secondary burial. The remains are believed to be still in the Batrawi Collection in the Cairo University Hospital [54].

The skeleton of Queen Meresankh III was found in her double mastaba G 7530-7540 in Giza in the stone sarcophagus and it is considered genuine. Due to a rare pathology (silent sinus syndrome), the queen's appearance was reconstructed. As a descendant of Khufu and wife of Khefren, Meresankh III is of great genealogical interest [59–61]. Her body height was estimated 154 cm [59].

The mummy, which was found in the pyramid of Men-Kau-Re (Mykerinos) in Giza and is in the British Museum EA 18212 is due to the radiocarbon dating in the late Roman to early Coptic phase and therefore certainly not a royal mummy [54,62,63].

The publications of Strouhal and Verner mention mummified remains coming from the unfinished pyramid of King Nefer-ef-Re. These have been radiocarbon-dated at the ETH Zurich and are therefore considered authentic and represent an important chronological anchor for the 5th Dynasty [6,63]. The radiocarbon dates are consistent with and support archaeoastronomical studies [64–66].

Also, from Abusir, from the pyramid of King Niuserre mummy parts of one arm and one hand exists. Some studies mention them [67]. On the other hand, other researchers did not mention these mummy remains at all [55].

The mummy remains of King Djedkare Isesi are considered genuine and were found in Saqqara in his pyramid. They are kept in Cario University Hospital No. AI 491 [55,62,68–70].

Several family members of Djedkare Isesi are also preserved as skeletons, these are Princess Khekernebti, Princess Hedjetnebu, Princess Tisethor and a queen whose name is lost. She is called "Lady L" because of her mastaba L. She may have been one of the king's wives [62,70,71].

The mummy parts of King Unas present a mystery: the Egyptian anatomist Batrawi found parts of a mummy in a shoe box in 1946 with the inscription that it was the mummy of Unas. However, there are no excavation reports [54,55]. A few years ago, a mummy hand and ear turned up in a private collection in Zurich, which, according to old documentation, were effectively found shortly after the pyramid of Unas was first opened. While the origin is confirmed, radiocarbon dating revealed that the hand belongs to the Ptolemaic period and therefore certainly represents a secondary burial [72].

In their monograph on mummies, Ikram and Dodson also mention the mummy of King Teti II, which is said to have been in the Cairo Museum. Further information is not available [54].

Of particular genealogical interest is the mummy of Queen Iput, as she was a daughter of Unas and, as the wife of Teti II, represents the dynastic link between the 5th and 6th Dynasties. Her remains could also clarify the open question of the authenticity of the mummy of Unas. Iput was found in the satellite pyramid in Teti II's pyramid complex. Her mummy is in Cairo University Hospital, QA 108. Ikram and Dodson described her remains as of a woman with large eyes and narrow nose who had died in middle age [54].

Another wife of Teti II whose body is preserved is Queen Khuit. She was found in her pyramid in the pyramid district of Teti. The remains were in the Cairo University Hospital, QA 109 [54]. According to Dodson and Hilton, they were transferred to the National Museum in Cairo QA 109 [73].

In November 2006, a small pyramid was built near the pyramid of Teti II with the burial of Queen Sesheskhet. According to Zahi Hawass, she is said to be the mother of King Teti II [73].

In the Mastaba of Vizier Mereruka, Saqqara Mastaba LS 10, bones were found which are attributed to Princess Sesheshet Watetkhentor, the daughter of King Teti II. The bones were in Cairo University Hospital and are now said to be in the Cairo Nat. Museum [73].

A mummified head with side curls of a youth has been preserved from the pyramid of King Merenre I in Saqqara. Either the king died very young or this is a secondary burial from a much later period. The very good preservation points to a later date. Current location: Saqqara, Imhotep Museum, formerly Cairo Mus. Ex. 3017. TR 2.12.25.1 [55,74–77]. In Berlin, Egyptian Museum, there are also clavicles, vertebrae and ribs, which are also said to come from this mummy [78].

During the French excavation project in Saqqara the Pyramid complex of Queen Ankensenpepy II was discovered. Inscription described her to be the wife of King Pepy I. Later she married her nephew, King Merenre I Nemtiemsaf I, who was the son of her sister (or half-sister) Ankhesenpepy I. Inside the sarcophagus the excavators discovered some bones, probably remains of Queen Ankhesenpepy II [79].

A headless mummy was found in Saqqara in a side pyramid of the pyramid complex of Pepy II. It is said to be the mummy of Queen Neith, one of the wives of King Pepy II. It is kept in Cairo University Hospital, AI 418 [69].

The mummies of the Middle Kingdom

In general, only a few mummies from the Middle Kingdom have survived (compared to other periods of Egyptian history). The royal mummies are no exception. Mummies of some queens are known from the 11th Dynasty: Queen Kemsit (Deir el-Bahari DB 308) and Queen Neferu II (DB 319).

Some bone fragments of King Mentuhotep II were found in his tomb behind his temple complex in Deir el Bahari (pieces of the skull and half of the mandible). They are stored in the British Museum EA 49457 [54].

The mummy of Queen Ashayet, a wife of King Mentuhotep II was found by Herbert Winlock in 1921. Her body was in excellent preservation status. The viscera were not removed at this period. The remains are in the Cairo Hospital collection QA 39 [54].

The mummy of Queen Henhenet, another wife of Mentuhotep II was found by Eduard Naville during his 1903-1906 expedition and given to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. On the request of Douglas Derry, the remains returned to Egypt and are now also in the Cairo Hospital collection AI 456. The mummy was well preserved but suffered damage from the voyage back to Egypt. The internal organs had not been removed. The queen had died at young age, probably in child-birth as she had a abnormally small pelvis [54].

Queen Kemsit: According to Herbert Winlock the plundered body, a gorgeous painted sarcophagus and parts of a shrine of Queen Kemsit are now in the British Museum [80]. The content of the coffin was obviously a disappointing view: ‘The coffin of Kemsit was the first thing we removed; it was closed and apparently still intact, and our hopes were high of finding untold treasure within it. We carried out to the Expedition house unopened, and at the first chance we had, we set it up in the photographic room. Cameras were assembled, notebooks made ready and everybody collected around. The word was given, the lid raised and we all peered in – to see a miserable little pile of rags and nothing else!’ [80].

Queen Neferu II was the daughter of King Inyotef III and Queen Iah [73,81]. She was the sister-wife of King Mentuhotep II. Winlock found the chapel of Neferu II filled almost to the ceiling with dismembered torsos and ripped of arms and legs of hundreds of roman mummies [80]. They were removed; their whereabouts is not mentioned by Winlock.

A leg bone from the pyramid of King Senwosret II was in London, University College, Petrie Museum. During an inventory in 1969, the bone could no longer be found and has since been listed as missing. Therefore, no evaluation can be made (Personal information after a request some years ago).

The body of King Hor from the 13th dynasty was found in his tomb in Dashur, reduced to a skeleton in a decayed coffin. He was a man in his forties. It seems that the brain was not removed. The remains are kept in the Cairo Museum [54].

The mummies of the New Kingdom

The mummies of the New Kingdom and the Third Intermediate Period are treated as individual case studies. The e-book edition therefore abstains from a summarised list.

Royal remains from the Late Period

So far, only the skeleton of Queen Arsinoë IV, a half-sister of the famous Cleopatra, has become known from the Ptolemaic dynasty.

Various attempts to find the tomb of the famous Cleopatra VII Philopator have so far been unsuccessful. According to ancient sources, her tomb was two storeys high and was also located in the cemetery of the gods with the other Ptolemies and Alexander the Great. Based on Plutarch, a reconstruction of Cleopatra's tomb was proposed by Pfrommer [82].

Methods used for Identification

With the discovery of the first royal cachette, scientific investigations also began. The latest technology such as X-rays was used very early on. Over the course of time, there were various approaches by Egyptology, medicine, anthropology and molecular genetics. The dates of reign used in this meta-analysis are an approximation, following generally used chronological models [83].

Inscriptions

These results are entirely independent from the other investigation methods, using archaeological methods only: Some mummies carried restoring inscriptions on the secondary non-royal coffins, on wrapping and shrouds.

The identification dockets can be classified the following:

Only the name (Type 1)

Name, titles and sometimes information on the date when the restoration was made in the 3rd Intermediate Period (Type 2)

This archaeological identification is considered to be generally correct, especially the labels directly on the mummy bandages. It must be emphasized that there has been not one mummy from the royal cachette which had been proven wrongly identified by the ancient identification dockets [17]. For this reason, Herbert Winlock has taken the position valid since 1932 that, quote: “…the docket written by the ancient officials must be accepted unless there is very strong evidence against it.” [9,84].

Historical monuments of the Amarna period with inscriptions are also used to identify persons, especially mummies without labels. Tutankhamun is confirmed as the son of Akhenaten and Nefertiti by a relief now in Ashmunein [35]. The inscription in room γ of the royal tomb in El-Amarna undoubtedly names Nefertiti as the mother of the baby, who with good arguments can actually only be identified as Tutankhamun [26,28].

Other theories assume that the relief is meant to represent an abstract concept of rebirth [85,86]. However, such theological interpretations remain uncertain and speculative. Ultimately, it is the scientific-historical facts that count: Maketaton died far too young (about 10 years) to be seriously considered as Tutankhamun's mother; therefore Dodson describes Nefertiti as the perfectly plausible candidate for Tutankhamun's mother [87].

Some historical background knowledge is mandatory to understand the feasibility of presented identifications, thus brief historical notes on the respective royals are given. [83,88–93].

Anthropology

The first serial investigation was made by Grafton E. Smith (1871-1937) and was published in 1912 as monograph [94]. He measured the mummies to determine similarities between the cranium and the face. The ancient designations of the mummies were generally accepted. The age estimate was based on macroscopic examination. Douglas Derry examined the newly discovered mummies of Tutankhamun, the mummy from KV 55, King Psusennes I and other mummies a few decades later using similar methods [95–97].

Derry used similar cranio-facial measurements and analyses were used to strengthen the close morphological relationship between Tutankhamun and the mysterious male in tomb KV55 [97].

The Ramesside kings of the 19th and the Sethnakhtide kings of the 20th Dynasty were first autopsied by G. E. Smith after their discovery in the two royal cachettes DB 320 and KV 35 [94]. Smith measured the mummies to establish cranio-facial resemblances. Several mummies carried nametags and inscriptions on the mummy wrapping as part of their restauration during the later 21st and 22rd Dynasties. Some other mummies are anonymous but can be dated within the dynasty based on observation of the used mummification technique.

The cranio-facial study presented in 1992 focussed on the age and identity of several kings of the 18th Dynasty and the possibility of misinterpreting some of the ancient designations was discussed [98–101]. Recently further studies on the body height and cranial data of the Pharaohs have been undertaken [102,103]. Height and body proportions are hereditable to a high degree, thus being an indicator of bloodline connections [104–106].

Facial Resemblance

Similarity in appearance and morphology have repeatedly been used to insert the royal mummies into genealogical sequences: The cranio-facial-study presented in 1992 raised further questions about the age and identity of some kings of the 18th Dynasty, and the possibility of misinterpretation of some ancient name docket was discussed [98–101].

Radiology

The serial X-ray investigation of the kings by Harris and Weeks revealed first insights [107,108]. The new technologies provided some additional information, but also caused further controversy in some cases [98]. In some cases, the X-rays suggested a much lower age at death than had been assumed because of the years of reign, e.g., in the case of Thutmosis III. CT scans confirmed certain morphological similarities, indicating a close relationship between kings and presumed causes of death, but neither proving nor disproving identity [109].

Hawass and Salem have recently published additional CT-scans of some kings from the 19th and 20th Dynasties [20].

Serological Studies

During this decade of the first systematic X-ray investigation of the 1960s, a detailed anatomical examination of the mummy from KV 55 and serological tests of mummies from the Amarna period also provided important scientific information for identification. [110–113].

The blood groups amongst the Amarna rulers were similar, but this could not resolve their exact relationships. Tutankhamun and the KV 55 male have the same blood group A2 and MN. Thus, they could be brothers or – if their mother shares the same groups – father and son. The solution father-son is supported by genetics [25].

Hair Identification

Hair analyses have so far played a very minor role and have only been used for identification in one case: In Tutankhamun's tomb, Howard Carter (1874-1939) found a series of miniature coffins with the inscription of Queen Tiye (Cairo Nat. Mus. JE 60697-60700, Carter No 320a-d). They contained a lock of hair (Cairo Nat. Mus. JE 60701, Carter No 320). This was given in Tutankhamun's funeral as a memento of his ancestor, Queen Tiye [114]. The hair was compared with the wavy hair of the Elder Lady in KV 35, leading to a proposed identification as Tjye [100,115,116] which was later confirmed by genetic testing in 2010 [25].

Genetics

Scott Woodward made the first attempt at genetic analyses of some of these mummies, but the results remained unpublished; however, parts of the data was shown in a documentary movie [37,117,118]. He discovered the historically known incest also in the genetic data sets, especially at the beginning and at the end of the 18th Dynasty and proposed that the mummy CG 61074 is Amenhotep III. After the millennium, molecular genetics opened a new door into the past, but the feasibility of acquiring authentic ancient DNA from Egyptian mummies is still debated. Another project to obtain genetic profiles of the Pharaohs was suggested by Sakuji Yoshimura, but declined in 2000 [37].

Zink and Nerlich postulated that DNA analysis was feasible based on the lower temperature in the tombs, the beneficial fact that mummies are dry and that natron increases the pH-value [119]. The success rate of amplifying DNA by PCR from ancient samples is generally 50-60% [120].

Other studies based on the rate of decay of DNA in papyrus rejected the concept that authentic DNA from ancient Egypt could survive at all [121]. Factors such as humidity, chemicals, temperature and modern contamination pose a challenge to molecular genetic studies [122]. A study on the extent of modern contamination was presented by Malmström, who examined animal remains for human DNA: all 29 samples contained human DNA due to modern contamination, but in 25 cases authentic animal DNA was also found [123]. To rule out contamination, procedures have been developed to ensure the collection of authentic ancient DNA [124–126]. In principle, all studies on ancient DNA published before 2010 must be questioned and should be carried out again. To ensure authentic and credible data they suggest:

Extraction of clean samples in new excavations, the traditional cleaning of bones must be avoided: no washing, no chemicals and separate storage from modern samples; and investigators should handle them only with gloves and wear forensic suits.

For old material, which is possibly contaminated, a decontamination strategy should be used first.

Search for criteria of authenticity (short DNA strands of less than 300 base pairs and authentic aDNA should contain modified bases).

UV irradiation and removal of the surface material, extraction from the bone cortex or dentine.

For the Tutankhamun Family project, such safety protocols were applied [32,42,127]. Several facts speak clearly in favour of authentic aDNA [7]:

All female genetic profiles were negative for Y-Chromosome markers.

All male mummies showed homozygous (i.e. hemizygous) Y-chromosomal profiles.

The profiles and haplotypes of all mummies showed individual differences and therefore could not have originated from the same source of putative contaminant DNA.

The combination of nuclear data (Y- and autosomal chromosome–related markers) complemented each other.

Different biopsies and extractions on each mummy resulted in reproducible genotypes.

The profiles established a multi-generation family tree. This family line concurs with information from Egyptology on the relationship of the individuals: Modern contamination by excavators and anthropologists would be extremely unlikely result in such a family line [32].

Claims around the turn of the millennium that it was not possible to obtain authentic genetic profiles from Egyptian mummies have since been refuted [44,121,122]. Various studies have been able to generate credible genetic profiles of mummified animals (crocodile and cat mummies) [37,128,129].

New technology, such as Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) will make it easier to identify contamination and separate it from authentic DNA. From all methods applied to identify royal mummies, molecular genetics are the most reliable together with accurate information from the historic inscriptions provided by archaeological research.

Other Methods

The lengths of reigns of the Kings from Ramses II to the end of the 20th Dynasty are the best attested ones in the whole Egyptian history and in addition, some mummies were radiocarbon dated. Thus, these mummies form important chronological anchors [83]. However, contamination from soil, bacteria and the consumption of fish must be considered, as well as mummification substances (making a sample appear older than it actually is) [130].

It may sound strange, but the embalming materials used in different eras resulted in very different scents of mummies. These give a literal indication of the era. The mummies of the 17th dynasty are not only technically different, they are often characterized by a smell of oil and dead fish described as very unpleasant. A clear change can be observed in the 18th dynasty, the mummies have hardly any scent. This characteristic changes only in the later 19th Dynasty and in the 20th Dynasty. Now lichen and sawdust are used, which give the mummies a characteristic scent. Also, in the 3rd intermediate period such fillings of mummies are common, but now combined with quite characteristic subcutaneous stuffings. No royal mummies have yet become known from the Late Period, and should they follow the general trend of mummies of this period, they would have the following characteristics: The body cavity is filled with resin on a large scale, which makes the mummies somewhat heavier and harder. The scent is most like a mixture of old engine oil and decayed perfume. The organ bundles of the Shep-en-Isis in St. Gall (Switzerland) can be considered as a quite typical scent for the Late Period [131].

Individual Case Studies

Key for the fact sheet

Age: Anthropological age of the mummy

Historical Age: Age of the Royal calculated from historical sources and recorded length of reign

Conventional ID: Birth Name (Throne name assumed at accession and used for the dockets).

Due to the fact that, especially in the third intervening period, different persons bore the same name, the distinction system with letters after the name (in brackets) as used by Dodson and Hilton is used in order to be able to distinguish the persons from each other with certainty [73].

Queen Meresankh III

Sex: female

Age: matur-senil, 50-55 years old

Historic Age: Unknown, certainly adult

Spouse: King Khaefre

ID: Meresankh III.

Body height: 154 cm

She was the daughter of Crown Prince Kawab and Hetepheres II (therefore a niece of King Khufu). She married her uncle, King Khafre. This marriage made her Queen of Upper- and Lower Egypt. She had several children, among them the Vizier Duaenre and the Vizier Nebemachet, two other sons (Kheneterka and Niuserre) and one daughter named Shepsetkau (two additional daughter are suspected and their names unknown).

She died at about age 50 and was buried in the double mastaba G 7530-7540 in the eastern cemetery of the Khufu-Pyramid-Complex. An inscription above the northern mastaba (G 7530) gives two dates: The first is the day of death of Queen Meresankh III: Year 1, month 1 of the Shemu-season, day 21. The second date is the day of her funeral: Year (2), month 2 of the Peret-season, day 18. Thus, her funeral took place 273 days later, exceeding the conventional 70 days of mummification. It is unclear to whose reign the year refers. George Reisner favoured the reign of King Shepeskaf. Today, the first two years of King Menkaure's reign are favoured as a more realistic dating option [59].

The burial chamber was found in 1927 by George A. Reisner [132]: A shaft leads from Room B down to the underground burial chamber. A black granite sarcophagus was found there, which is now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. It still contained the skeleton of the Queen. Examinations by Douglas Derry revealed that she had been about 1.54 metres tall and died at the age of about 50 to 55 years [59].

The skull of the queen has some special features, such as the enormous width of the skull (146 mm), the zygomatic bones are sunken on both sides. Based on the preserved skeleton, the rare silent sinus syndrome was diagnosed in a very rare bilateral form [60,61,133]. Presumably an inflammation of the maxillary sinus cavities led to their collapse. As a result, the chewing pressure during eating was only deflected via the nasal bone, but no longer via the zygomatic bones. The zygomatic bones descended over the course of many years, the forehead slowly widened and the cranium followed this widening. This led to the strange shape of the skull. Interestingly, broad heads in women corresponded to the ideal of beauty propagated in art during the Old Kingdom. This is historically the oldest case of silent sinus syndrome that has been scientifically published to date.

Queen Meresankh III seems to have had a great affection for her mother Hetepheres II, as her mother was depicted several times in the tomb as a relief and funerary statue together with Meresankh III.

The name Meresankh can be translated in two ways: She loves life (according to Ranke, Personennamen 1935, page 158) or Life loves her (according to Silke Roth: Die Königsmütter des Alten Ägypten von der Frühzeit bis zum Ende der 12. Dynastie 2001, page 385). Simpson offered a third reading of her name as The living One loves her [59].

Her mother Hetepheres II is depicted on a relief in the tomb of Queen Meresankh III not only wearing an almost futuristic-looking white cloak, she also has a short blonde hairstyle. As this is a relief and the mummy/skeleton of Hetepheres II has not yet been found, it remains unclear whether it was grey hair dyed with henna or a blonde wig, or whether Hetepheres II was naturally blonde. This is by no means totally unusual, as in Berber tribes in North Africa the proportion of people with flaxen hair is around 30% of the population.

Skull of Queen Meresankh III as found and photographed by G. Reisner in 1927 © 1

Sarcophagus containing the skeletal remains of Queen Meresankh III as found by G. Reisner in 1927 © 2

Relief in the mastaba of Queen Meresankh III: Her mother Hetepheres II with the futuristic mantle and the blond short hair. Behind stands Queen Meresankh III. wearing a short, tight cap over her skull (either a short hair cut or bald can be assumed). © 3

Queen Meresankh III depicted as relief in her mastaba in Giza © 4

King Seneb-Kay-User-Jb-Ra

Sex: Male

Age: Adult

Historic Age: Unknown

Reign: Local ruler of the 2nd Intermediate Period in Abydos, ca. 1650 BC

ID: Seneb-Kay User-jb-Ra

Body height: 185.0 cm

Recently discovered in situ: The skeletal remains of an previously unknown ruler of the 2nd Intermediate Period [134–137].

The skeleton was reported to be that of a 185 cm tall man. Newest reports now only assess him to be c. 180 – 182 cm.

Seqenenre Taa II

The mummy Cairo CG 61058: King Seqenenre Taa II

Sex: Male

Age: About 40 years old [138].

Historic Age: Uncertain

Reign: c. 1558-1553 BC [138]

Conventional ID: Seqenenre Taa II

Inscription: Type 1

Coffin: Cairo CG 61001

Body height: 170.2 cm

Left femur: 46.0 cm, Radius 24.6 cm, Humerus 33.2 cm [94]

There is almost nothing known about the biography of King Seqenenre, hence there are no historical information on his age at death.

The mummy of Seqenenre has been the topic of wide discussion, whether his lethal wounds were the result of the liberation war against the foreign Hyksos-rulers in the north or not. The identity of the king is undisputed because of the historical circumstances of his death and the fact that the coffin was inscribed with his name (Seqenenre Taa Ken “the Brave”). The crude mummification and the twisted body indicate an emergency mummification in a state of rigor mortis and already beginning to decompose, with an assumed death on the battlefield in the north and having to be transported hundreds of kilometres to Thebes. There is therefore no doubt about the identification of the king. The exact injuries and the weapons used derived from them have repeatedly been the subject of studies, but ultimately play little role in identification [94,138–142]. The CT scan examination yielded new data for age determination: Hawass and Saleem estimated an age of about 40. The set of teeth is complete, including the third molars and only a moderate attrition of the teeth was observed [138].

Seqenenre Taa I © 5 and © 6

Unknown Woman B

The mummy Cairo CG 61056

Sex: Female

Age: Old woman, white-haired [94]

Suggested ID: Tetisheri [73]

The mummy was unwrapped in 1886 and wrongly regarded as the mummy of King Ramses I [15]. Later, G. E. Smith discovered during an inspection in June 1909 that the mummy in the coffin was female and mummified in the style of the early 18th dynasty [94]. As there are loose bandages carrying the name “Tetisheri”, the Unknown Woman B was suggested to be Tetisheri. But the bandages were found loose in the Cachette DB 320 and cannot be connected with certainty with this mummy [9]. Thus, the identification of mummy CG 61056 remains uncertain.

Tetisheri is recorded to be the daughter of a certain Tjenna and his wife Nefertu, as both were named on a shroud. It is assumed that Tetisheri was the mother of Queen Satdjehuti Satibu. In addition, King Ahmose I named Tetisheri to be his grandmother on a stela.

All the other suggestions are only vague: it is assumed that she might have been the wife of King Senakht-en-Re or Sequenenre Taa II.

Unknown Woman B © 7

Unknown Woman B © 8

Princess Ahmose

Turin, Museo Egizio Suppl. S. 5050

Sex: Female

Age: Adult

Conventional ID: Ahmose, daughter of King Seqenenre Taa II and Queen Sit-djehuti [73].

The mummy of the Princess was found in the Valley of the Queens in tomb QV 47 by the Italian Egyptologist Ernesto Schiaparelli in 1904.

Mummy of Princess Ahmose, daughter of Seqenenre Taa II. © 9

Princess Hetempet

The mummy Cairo CG 61062

Sex: Female

Age: Old woman