Tobruk 1942 E-Book

David Mitchelhill-Green

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 586

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Tobruk was one of the greatest Allied victories – and one of the worst Allied defeats – of the Second World War. The 1942 fiasco rocked the very foundation of Winston Churchill's premiership. It revived the flagging hopes of the German people and fanned the flames of Arab unrest.Furthering Rommel's ascendency and souring relations within the British Commonwealth, it marked a turning point in Anglo-American relations in the fight against Adolf Hitler's Third Reich. Utilising a wealth of primary and secondary sources, Tobruk 1942 examines why the fortress fell to Rommel's Axis forces in just 24 hours when it held out against repeated attacks the previous year. Comparing the 1941 and 1942 battles, this book presents a new perspective on Tobruk – the isolated Libyan fortress, and symbol of Allied freedom, which for a period in the war captured the world's attention.

Leseprobe

Cover illustrations courtesy of The National Archives and RecordsAdministration, United States

First published 2016

This paperback edition first published 2022

The History Press

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© David Mitchelhill-Green, 2016, 2022

The right of David Mitchelhill-Green to be identified as the Author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the Publishers.

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ISBN 978 0 7509 6960 4

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Contents

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Preface

1 ‘Supremacy of the Mediterranean’

2 The Rise of German and Italian Nationalism

3 Blitzkrieg in the West

4 Mussolini’s Mediterranean Gamble

5 ‘One of the Decisive Events of the War’

6 African Sunflower

7 ‘There’ll Be No Dunkirk Here’

8 The ‘May Show’

9 Threatened in All Directions

10 ‘The Auk’

11 The Life of the ‘Rats’ – ‘Not without Interest’

12 Crusader and the Relief of Tobruk

13 1942: The High-Water Mark of Axis Military Success

14 ‘Tobruk, a Wonderful Battle’

15 ‘Defeat is One Thing; Disgrace is Another’

16 Aftermath

17 The Lure of the Nile

Notes

Bibliography

With banded backs against the wall,

Fiercely stand, or fighting fall.

The Siege of Corinth, Lord Byron, 1816

***

Millions of tongues record thee, and anew

Their children’s lips shall echo them, and say –

‘Here, where the sword united nations drew,

Our countrymen were warring on that day!’

And this is much, and all which will not pass away.

Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, Lord Byron, 1818

Acknowledgements

Work on this book has spanned several years. Many veterans, their families and relatives generously offered me a host of materials during the early stages of my research. I would like to thank (in no particular order): Richard Weston, Peter Rymer, May Green, Eric Watts, Dorothy Gibbs, A.R. Duckworth, Jack Holdsworth, Bert Thwaites, Bill Harvey, Harold E. Gibbs, Joy Ogley, Gloria Tonta, Rob Sangster, Jack Caple, Joyce and Ken James, Lloyd Tan, Betty Smith, Clare H. Walker, Roy Jardine, Olga Henwood, Margaret Donaghy, Ross Scholes, Dulcie Bowditch, Noel Shaw, Jack Caple, G.J. Tyler, Kerry Duce, John Best, T.H. Anderson, F.M. Paget, Meryll Williams, Joan Mawson, Jim Tattersall, Keith G. Secombe, Sylvia Sutcliffe, Joe Madeley, Gordon Hughes, A.C. Fletcher, M.D. Burles, Sue Lasky, H. Wilson, L.L. Barton, J.H. Flak, Janice Auburn and Murray Welton, Heinz Kilanowski, Rolf Werner Volker, Kurt Sawall, and Heinz Becker.

My heartfelt appreciation is also extended to Professor Mesut Uyar who kindly provided materials relating to the first battles for Tobruk from the Turkish perspective; to Carrie White-Parrish for critiquing the manuscript; and to Michael Leventhal and Chrissy McMorris for their enthusiasm in bringing this project to life. Errors of omission, fact or judgement are mine alone.

Finally, I would also like to acknowledge my family’s longstanding support and understanding. Thank you Jennifer, Harvey and Hana.

Abbreviations

ADC

Aide-de-Camp

AIF

Australian Imperial Force

AWM

Australian War Memorial

BBC

British Broadcasting Corporation

BEF

British Expeditionary Force

CIGS

Chief of the Imperial General Staff

CRA

Commander of the Royal Artillery

DAK

Deutsches Afrikakorps (German Africa Corps)

Div

Division

GHQ

General Headquarters

GOC

General Officer Commanding

HQ

Headquarters

OKW

Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command of the German Armed Forces)

RA

Royal Artillery

RAF

Royal Air Force

RAN

Royal Australian Navy

RASC

Royal Army Service Corps

RHA

Royal Horse Artillery

RN

Royal Navy

RTR

Royal Tank Regiment

RVNR

Royal Volunteer Naval Reserve

SAAF

South African Air Force

SAI

South African Infantry

Preface

Modern European interest in North Africa began with Napoleon’s ill-fated expedition to Egypt in 1798. It marked the beginning of an imperial crusade that would continue over the next 150 years. France’s next move was to seize Algiers in 1830. Tunisia and southern Morocco subsequently became French protectorates in 1881 and 1912 respectively. Britain followed suite, assuming control of the Suez Canal in 1875 and occupying Egypt in 1882. The Spanish occupied the Moroccan Atlantic coast (Ifni) in 1860, the Western Sahara in 1884 and northern Morocco in 1912. Our story begins around this period when Italy entered Libya. It continues on to the Italian invasion of Egypt in 1940 and the subsequent battles for control of the Middle East in the course of the world’s bloodiest war in history.

Benito Mussolini’s march on Egypt endangered the security of the Suez Canal and the Middle East oilfields fuelling Britain’s war effort. The ensuing war in North Africa evolved in an uncharacteristic way. Arid swatches of empty desert offered no opportunity for terrain-related defence. Instead they became an ocean for Europe’s mechanised armies to manoeuvre across. In naval-like engagements, a position could change rapidly, stagnation spelt danger;1 lonely coastal ports along the northern Mediterranean became indispensable supply points. In the pages that follow, we will examine why the remote Libyan fortress and harbour town of Tobruk holds a special place in the history of the Second World War – how it became a focal point in the Desert War, the objective of Axis and Allied offensives and a battleground that has since become the stuff of legend.

First occupied by the Italians in 1911, Tobruk was overrun by the British after a brief siege in January 1941. Soon afterwards in April 1941, a mixed British Commonwealth force was forced to retire into Tobruk in the face of an Axis advance led by the daring German commander, General Erwin Rommel, who had arrived in Libya to buttress the flagging Italians. The ensuing 9-month siege – the longest in British military history after the eighteenth-century investment of Gibraltar by France and Spain – catapulted Tobruk from obscurity to headlines around the world, a cause célèbre. It was, like the Battle of Britain, a bright note for the Allies in the aftermath of a string of defeats across Western Europe by Hitler’s Wehrmacht and the Dunkirk evacuation. It was also the albatross that thwarted Rommel’s unauthorised and audacious plan to seize Cairo.

In June 1942, Rommel again pressed forward and threatened Tobruk. However, many of the players in this desert drama had changed over the preceding months, as had the stage. Tobruk bore little resemblance to the bastion it was during the height of the second siege of 1941. Nevertheless, its reputation from that period remained – influencing the fateful decision to hold it again, despite a directive at the beginning of 1942 that forbade another siege. The upshot of this decision led to one of the worst British defeats of the war, the repercussions of which were felt around the globe.

In examining the Desert War I have long been intrigued by how the British defenders of Tobruk were able to stave off all attacks by Rommel’s Italo-German forces during the entire year of 1941, when they succumbed to his forces in just 24 hours a year later. Could such a comparison be made? In 1944 Lieutenant General Sir John Lavarack panned an official British government publication, The Eighth Army, for following up the ‘old policy of belittling the early operations for the defence of Cyrenaica in April, 1941, in an endeavour to gloss over the failure of 1942’.2 According to the publication, ‘No comparison can be justly be made between holding Tobruk then and losing it now,’3 a statement Lavarack slammed as ‘incorrect and unfair’. Former South African Brigadier E.P. Hartshorn later dismissed the idea of a comparative investigation as ‘ludicrous’.4 Perhaps Hartshorn was influenced by the unfortunate defeat suffered by the largely South African garrison in 1942, a sore point in South Africa that is now largely forgotten.5 Yet by directly comparing and contrasting the individual battles for Tobruk today, I trust we can better understand its strategic and political prominence, as well as the myriad of intertwining factors that culminated in its surrender – Rommel’s greatest conquest.

***

A few notes on vocabulary and geography: Although it may be offensive to some today, the term ‘British’ will be used in its contemporary context to denote Commonwealth and Empire troops – who actually outnumbered the British for much of the North African Campaign – drawn from the Antipodes, India and South Africa. Specific formations have been identified by their country of origin.

For the purpose of this book, the exact geographical meaning of North Africa will coincide with present-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. During the war, Tobruk was spelt in several ways, including Marsa Tobruk, Tobruq and the Italian form Tobruch. In terms of pronunciation, the Italians stressed the first syllable, the British the last. I will use the word ‘Tobruk’. Inconsistencies in spelling and grammar have been retained in quotations. In keeping with the period, imperial measurements will be used.

David Mitchelhill-Green, 2022

1

‘Supremacy of the Mediterranean’

‘Rivers of blood were poured out over miserable strips of land which, in normal times, not even the poorest Arab would have bothered his head about.’

– Erwin Rommel

War is no stranger to the ancient Libyan landscape. Over millennia, the arid expanse that became Libya – a name bestowed by Italy in 1934 – was passed in bloody combat from the Greeks to the Ptolemies to the Romans to the Arabs, and toward the end of the sixteenth century, to the Ottoman Turks. Centuries later in 1937, the German Military Attaché in London, General Baron Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg, a future tank commander in Adolf Hitler’s Polish, French and Russian campaigns, inspected British troops stationed in Egypt. Thousands of years of conflict between the East and West over Mediterranean dominance had already taught two key lessons: firstly, that possession of the Nile Delta is crucial. Secondly, Egypt, which is shielded by the Western Desert, has been conquered from the east, from the sea, but never from the west.

Egypt’s strategic significance, now, was obvious, particularly when escalating tension between London and Rome was the hottest topic in Middle East politics. Schweppenburg noted the dichotomy between the two nations preparing for a possible war – how the British were quietly undertaking defensive measures; how the Italians were doing exactly the opposite; and how no one could envisage that Germany would enter the threatening North African fray. It was clear the Italians would face enormous challenges should they invade Egypt. Schweppenburg was impressed with British preparations for combat along the Libyan frontier. He noted the simple desert compasses used for navigation across the featureless desert, a generous provision for hauling water and the importance placed on robust, wheeled transport. At the sea, he foresaw the Royal Navy mauling Italian supply lines across the Mediterranean. And, as Schweppenburg concluded, ‘From the British point of view, the situation in Egypt must seem assured. Any attack from the West would, at the very worst, be halted at the Nile.’1

Tobruk: the Key to Mediterranean Supremacy

Most of the fighting in North Africa during the Second World War was centred around Libya, the fourth largest country on the African continent, and the backdrop to our story. From a historical perspective, Libya is divided into two provinces: Tripolitania in the west and Cyrenaica in the east, although the Germans and Italians referred to the area east of Gazala as ‘Marmarica’. The capital, Tripoli, abuts the northern Mediterranean coastline. While the Middle East – in 1940, Libya, Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Transjordan, Arabia, Iraq and Iran – is the meeting point of three continents, the Mediterranean is the intercontinental sea separating them. More than 970,000 square miles in area, the widest point of the sea between Europe to Africa is 850 miles; the narrowest is a mere 8 miles, across the Strait of Gibraltar at the western entrance to the Atlantic Ocean.

Tobruk has a long and colourful history as an important deepwater harbour and fortress on this sea. In ancient times, it flourished as an important Greek agricultural colony known as Antipyrgos – a haven for pilgrims travelling to the Egyptian Oasis of Siwa. The Roman Emperor Justinian later built a fort above the harbour, Antipyrgon, to guard the Cyrenaican frontier. Centuries later, the Saracens (or Muslims) built a castle on the north side of the harbour, known as Marsa Tobruk – the Bay of Tobruk. It later changed ownership when the Ottoman Turks took control to defend against any attack by warring states across the Mediterranean.

The importance of the port continued into the so-called modern world. In July 1798, a number of French corvettes, frigates, triple-deckers and transports from General Napoleon Bonaparte’s fleet under Vice Admiral Francois-Paul Brueys d’Aigalliers sheltered in Tobruk’s harbour, to escape British attention. They were en route to Egypt, and eventual defeat at the hands of Admiral Horatio Nelson in the Battle of the Nile.

Tobruk’s strategic value began to soar during the late nineteenth century, when Europe’s Great Powers began to look with interest at neighbouring Northern Africa. After visiting the harbour in 1883, the German explorer Georg Schweinfurth reported that Tobruk would assure no less than the ‘supremacy of the Mediterranean’.2 Heightened Italian sentiment in the months leading up to the Italo-Turkish war led one nationalist – foreshadowing what the Allies would come to realise and fight for in the Second World War – to protest that his homeland could never be free if Tobruk, ‘the Bizerte of the eastern Mediterranean’, remained occupied by another power.

An article published in a 1911 geographical journal reported how ‘all visitors agree as to the excellent qualities of the harbour’. Italian interest was chronicled the same year in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which foresaw Tobruk as a future ‘man-of-war harbour’. The harbour’s allure – the largest port between Ras el Tin, the British naval base near Alexandria in Egypt, and Tripoli – even encouraged Lord Kitchener to annex it for neighbouring Egypt, until that action was barred by the British Foreign Office.3 Keenly eyed, it would not be long before Tobruk was more permanently seized by a European power.

A nineteenth-century map of Tobruk. Note the Saracen castle, site of the future harbour city.

2

The Rise of German and Italian Nationalism

‘We do not intend to remain eternally as prisoners in the Mediterranean.’

– Mussolini, March 1939

Over the past 200 years, the map of continental Europe – and consequently much of the rest of the world – has changed dramatically as nations emerged, empires withered and territories passed from vanquished to victor. We turn now to the mid-nineteenth century to examine the events that preceded and precipitated the battles for Tobruk; in particular, the demise of the Ottoman Empire, the precarious European political climate of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, Germany’s jockeying for position, Italy’s quest for power and prestige, and the various incidents that drew Europe irrevocably into the maelstrom of two world wars.

Germany and Italy: Birth of the Future Belligerents

For centuries, the Italian peninsula remained a fragmented collection of independent states. A final push for Italian unification began after the 1859 defeat of the Austrians by the French. State elections held in northern Italy were followed by the convening of a national parliament in March 1861 and the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy under King Vittorio Emanuele II – a united Italy for the first time since the Roman Empire. The new government introduced three measures to unify the country: a national railroad system, a national education system and a national army to carry out its policies.

The first attempt to unify the German states analogously occurred in 1848, the most widespread revolutionary year in European history. Revolutionaries in the German states called for a national militia and parliament as well as a fairer taxation system and freedom of religion. By late 1848, however, the movement had dissolved. The next endeavour to unify Germany was undertaken through force by Prussia’s prime minister, Otto von Bismarck – the so-called Iron Chancellor. The 1862 Danish War, the first war of German unification, was followed by the 1866 Austro-Prussian war, the second war of unification. Italy joined Bismarck in the seven weeks’ campaign that annexed many southern states that had sided with Vienna. Having formed the North German Confederation in 1867, Bismarck’s territorial ambitions were further realised after the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870–71, the final act of unification.

Bismarck became the chancellor of a new German Empire, which he termed the Second German Reich, its 1,000-year predecessor having been destroyed by Napoleon in 1806. The Empire was proclaimed in the former French royal palace of Versailles – a site where victor and vanquished would again meet in 1919. It was here that William I of Prussia was crowned Kaiser, or emperor – the first Head of State of a united Germany. On top of their defeat, the French suffered further embarrassment in the Treaty of Frankfurt, which ceded territory and huge sums to the Germans in reparations. Within Germany, a new wave of Prussian militarism emerged – a menace to Europe that receded only after the collapse of the Third Reich in May 1945.

Bismarck next turned his attention to establishing a series of alliances across Europe. Aimed at securing Germany’s position, his manoeuvring fuelled a growing sense of rivalry and apprehension between the European powers. From the turn of the century until 1912, European politics would be dominated by nationalism and colonialism. This was a period when a country’s international status – its power – was measured by the size of its foreign empire. Germany’s imperialist taste, within this expansionist environment, was sated with new colonies spread across Africa, New Guinea, China and the Pacific.

Italy, too, was eager to assert itself on the world stage, although its late sitting at the imperialist table left few scraps in the ‘scramble for Africa’ worthy of consideration. Rome’s African affair, however, would prove to be a costly undertaking that reached its zenith – and undoing – during the Second World War. The 17,000-man Italian expedition that seized present day Somalia and Eritrea was overwhelmed humiliatingly by Ethiopian fighters in March 1896, at the Battle of Adowa – one of the finest victories ever by an African army over a European power. In the wake of the disastrous massacre, Rome looked for a new colony, one closer to home. For many years prior to unification, Italian statesmen had eyed Ottoman-held North Africa with keen interest. Now tension arose between Constantinople, the Ottoman capital, and Rome, as the latter’s expansionist aspirations became apparent.

Benito Mussolini

Italian sentiment at the time was divided. On the one hand, nationalists and newspapers were rousing the public’s support for a new war to erase the painful memory of Adowa. Socialists and Republicans, on the other hand, were staunchly opposed to any conflict. Still, it seemed only a matter of time before Italy invaded Ottoman-held Libya.

Socialist and one-time schoolmaster Benito Mussolini was particularly hostile toward any Italian intervention in North Africa. ‘Every honest Socialist must disapprove of this Libyan adventure. It means only useless and stupid bloodshed,’ he avowed.1 Born in northern Italy near Forli on 29 July 1883, Mussolini was the son of a blacksmith and part-time socialist journalist, and schoolteacher mother. Incensed by his country’s military involvement in Libya, the future fascist leader/would-be empire builder was, paradoxically, arrested for attempting to block the passage of troop trains bound for Tripoli. Although he would one day order their mass subjugation, he boasted, in his youth, that he was on the side of the Libyans.

However, Libya was attractive to Italy. Despite the obvious historical ties and proximity to southern Europe, it was one of the few African territories not to have fallen under European rule. This was, in part, due to its limited strategic and economic value (oil would not be discovered until after 1945), and also because it remained part of the sickly Ottoman Empire. With neighbouring Tunisia already under French control, and Egypt, Malta and Cyprus under British occupation, Libya could provide Italy with a ‘fourth shore’ on which to underpin strategic security in the Mediterranean.2 It would offer emigration and economic benefits and, if managed properly, once again become a food bowl for Rome.

In Germany, an anxious Kaiser William II monitored events closely. He pondered whether Italian expansion into Libya would lead to new unrest in the Balkans. Would it push the British to occupy Arabia? Or would it trigger another European war?

Anxiety intensified in Rome that another European power might occupy Tripoli (especially after a dispute between Germany and France in July 1911, when a German gunboat arrived at the Moroccan port of Agadir, which France had already claimed) or Tobruk. Eventually, after years of hesitation, Italy staged a confrontation with Turkey. An ultimatum was issued on 28 September 1911 to the Ottoman Grand Vizier Hakkı Pasha, calling for the occupation of the Libyan provinces of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania. Having read the document, Pasha is said to have exclaimed, ‘C’est donc la guerre!’ Snubbing the Turkish response, Italy’s Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti declared war.

The Italo-Turkish War

Reports in the Italian press suggested an Arab population indifferent to, or even anticipating, a new occupation. Giolitti’s government had taken no stock for possible Ottoman resistance. The kingdom’s military confidently predicted a short campaign, little more than a ‘military promenade’; a ‘walk in the park’ among a populace waiting with open arms. The Italian General Staff even felt that the seizure of key ports would be enough to drive the Turks to the bargaining table.

The Italian expeditionary force comprised 34,000 men, 6,300 horses and mules, 1,050 wagons, forty-eight field guns and twenty-four mountain guns. For the first time, aircraft and airships – the latest weaponry – would be used in combat. Rome bullishly anticipated that the 7,000-man Turkish garrison would crumble, while the indigenous population would rush to greet the invaders as liberators, ending centuries of oppressive Ottoman rule. Following two days of naval bombardment, Italian marines stormed the Libyan capital of Tripoli on 5 October 1911. The landing, however, was endangered by the hasty diversion of a large Italian naval force, comprising six battleships, destroyers and torpedo boats to support operations at another priority target: Tobruk.

Vice Admiral Augusto Aubry’s substantial fleet entered Tobruk’s harbour on 4 October, and the Italian flagship Vittorio Emanuele opened fire at close range, forcing the recalcitrant Turkish commander to surrender. A landing party of 400 men swiftly occupied the town, reinforced by an Italian expeditionary corps the next day.3 Overwhelmed, the small Ottoman defending force – an infantry company lacking heavy arms – withdrew south, while the Italians, now at a regimental level, secured the town and surrounding desert on 5 November 1911. The Italian press rejoiced over the victory. Yet London’s The Times questioned ‘of what practical utility Marsa Tobruk will be to Italy, even if it is eventually converted into a naval base and adequately defended’. According to The Times, the ‘Italian Navy must either use Marsa Tobruk in war or not use it. If it is not used it is only an unprofitable expense’.4 It was an astute observation; Rome would pour enormous resources into turning the port into a fortress, though as we will learn, for only a modest return.

Tripoli, Benghazi and Derna also succumbed to the Italian expeditionary force while opposition grew the further the invaders pushed inland from the beachheads. The ranks of the retreating Turks quickly began to swell with thousands of Sanusi and Berber volunteers opposed to the ‘liberating’ infidels. The Turks issued modern rifles and schooled them in digging trenches and using grenades. Rome, consequently, now faced the prospect of a lengthy guerrilla conflict in the poorly mapped Libyan interior – a harsh desert environment without water or the infrastructure needed to transport and support the substantial body of men and horses required to overwhelm the resistance.

The Italians, however, held the upper hand in terms of heavy artillery, 100,000 troops, mechanised transport and the earliest military aircraft. History was made when the Italian 1st Aeroplane Flotilla conducted a pioneering aerial reconnaissance and bombing raid, using hand grenades. Civilian pilots, keen to join the new war, also flew their primitive craft from Italy to the new airstrips at Derna and Tobruk. According to a 1914 Italian account of the conflict: ‘The dropping of bombs, while they did no material damage, had a wonderful moral effect. Our troops were the first in the world to use this method of offense.’5

Notwithstanding their superiority in men and firepower, the Italians did little more than slowly extend the fortified perimeters of their Libyan coastal positions. Caught in a deadlock, Italy had misjudged the enemy’s capabilities, and thrust an unsuited conscript army into a protracted desert war. It was a situation not unlike Mussolini’s forthcoming Egyptian campaign.

The First Battle of Tobruk

On the Turkish side, one officer who rushed to join the fighting in Libya was Ismail Enver Bey (later Enver Pasha). A member of the Young Turks (the name given to a band of Turkish army officers who started a nationalist reform party, seized power from Sultan Abdul Hamid II and ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1908 until the end of the First World War), Pasha left his post as Turkish military attaché in Berlin to lead the resistance around Benghazi. As a Kolagasi (a rank between captain and major), Pasha assumed command of the Tobruk region on 20 November 1911.

Another Turkish officer and Young Turk who hurried to Libya was 30-year-old Mustafa Kemal – a man destined to become one of the great leaders of the twentieth century. Arriving in neutral Egypt in civilian guise, Kemal helped recruit native Sanusi Arab volunteers to join the Islamic Holy War, or Jihad, in Libya. Dressed in Arab dress, he then crossed into Cyrenaica, where he joined the small Turkish force encamped west of Tobruk. Kemal soon discovered that the Italians had already bolstered their presence and begun fortifying the town against a landward attack. A reinforced enemy infantry company equipped with heavy machine guns on a hill south of the harbour presented an easy target, but given the size of his meagre force, Kemal could do little more than encircle Tobruk and compel the Italians to divert additional resources and men there by sea.

To strengthen his ranks, Kemal persuaded a local sheikh and his Sanusi tribesmen to join him in an attack on Tobruk. After several weeks of training his men in how to use their newly acquired rifles, Kemal decided to strike at dawn on the morning of 22 December. Leading a native force of 200 against the Italian hill position, Kemal quickly trounced the enemy company and captured their weapons; the Italian defending troops, as obliging as their 1940 counterparts, threw down their arms and surrendered.6 The Italian reinforcements rushing to Tobruk to aid their fellows were caught in a series of ambushes and forced to retire with heavy casualties.7

The Ottoman Empire’s defence of Libya ultimately proved futile. A renewed Italian offensive in July 1912, plus the ever-worsening political situation along the Balkan Peninsula, moved the Turks to seek an armistice. The fighting concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on 18 October 1912. For the Italians, however, victory was bittersweet. While Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were formally transferred to Italy, the Machiavellian surrender document stipulated Turkey’s continued control over Libya’s religious affairs. Because Islamic law did not differentiate between civil and religious rule, the Sultan of Turkey – in the position of caliph (leader of Islam) – still retained considerable influence. Soon thereafter, his Libyan subjects took up arms and began a lengthy colonial war – resistance that Benito Mussolini would eventually quell some twenty years later.

Yet another dark page in the Kingdom of Italy’s nascent military record, the Libyan campaign had seriously drained Rome’s military resources, and challenged Prime Minister Giolitti to rethink his countrymen’s fighting abilities.8 All on the eve of a new European war.

The First World War

The ink was still drying on the peace settlement between Turkey and Italy when an anti-Turkish uprising in Albania and Macedonia encouraged the Balkan Alliance – Montenegro, Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria – to declare war on the Ottoman Empire. Soundly beaten in what became known as the First Balkan War (October 1912 to May 1913), the Turks relinquished control of nearly all their European territories – a historic end to 400 years of Turkish rule in Europe.

Barely four weeks passed before the victors began squabbling among themselves over recent spoils and newly drawn borders. This led Bulgaria to attack the new Serbian–Greek alliance in Macedonia, and the advent of the Second Balkan War (29 June to 10 August 1913). This time, however, the Bulgarians were the vanquished, and forced to cede much of what they had acquired in the First Balkan War. Simultaneously, Greece secured Crete and southern Macedonia, Serbia received northern Macedonia and Kosovo, and Albania became an independent state.

Although it maintained a delicate façade of peace, the region then became a political powder keg poised to explode. The Serbians, forced by Vienna to yield their conquests, harboured a deep resentment toward Austria. Conversely, Bulgaria now looked toward Vienna for support. Elsewhere in Europe, relations between Austria–Hungary and Russia had soured, as had those between Germany and Britain. In the midst of this pan-continental mistrust, a web of alliances was drawn up in the event of war between the Central Powers of Austria–Hungary and Germany – and the Triple Entente partners of Britain, France and Russia.

The European tinderbox exploded on 28 June 1914, when a Serbian teenage terrorist assassinated the Austrian heir-apparent, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife in Sarajevo, Bosnia. Austria–Hungary immediately declared war on Serbia. This third Balkan war, however, quickly escalated into something much larger, and by the beginning of August 1914, Europe had plunged headlong into a new conflict. One with enormous ramifications. Germany ambitiously declared war on Russia and France at the beginning of August, before launching a flanking offensive against the French through neutral Belgium. Bound by treaty obligation, Great Britain (followed by its Dominions) declared war on Germany on 4 August. A series of domino-like events ensued: Austria–Hungary declared war on Russia; France and Britain declared war against Austria–Hungary; and Montenegro and Serbia joined the Allies in declaring war on the Central Powers. Romania, however, failed to its honour its treaty obligations with Austria, and chose to remain neutral. Italy also chose to disregard its Triple Alliance obligations to Germany and Austria–Hungary, and instead sat on the fence, awaiting an opportune moment to enter the war.

The withering Ottoman Empire was a latecomer to the table. Formerly dependent upon Britain, on 14 November 1914 Constantinople entered the war as an ally of Germany and launched a jihad against Britain, Russia, France, Serbia and Montenegro.

The Western Front soon became mired in a bloody stalemate of trench warfare, and Whitehall (site of Britain’s Ministry of Defence) developed a grandiose idea to overcome the impasse. Besides, after five months of war, the Allies needed a victory, anywhere. Rather than open a new front against Germany directly, the operation would support the hard-pressed Russians and strike at the Central Powers by hitting the comparatively weak Turkish forces in the Dardanelles (the narrow stretch of water straddling Europe and Asia, which joins the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara). The concept of a purely naval assault against the Dardanelles was particularly appealing to the young British first lord of the Admiralty at the time, Winston Churchill.

Winston Churchill

The son of British Tory politician Lord Randolph and American heiress Jeanette Jerome, Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill was born at Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire, on 30 November 1874. Through his mother’s connections, Churchill was accepted into a cavalry regiment, the 4th Hussars, in 1895. Shortly afterwards, he was posted to India, where the young cavalry subaltern also served as a war correspondent – a second and far more lucrative profession. Longing for battle, which would both fascinate and serve him well in his imminent shift into politics, Churchill first saw action in September 1897, along India’s North West Frontier. The following year he joined the 21st Lancers in Cairo, Egypt’s capital, and rode in the cavalry charge during the battle of Omdurman in the Sudan – a victory that established British dominance in the region.

Resigning his commission in 1899, Churchill followed his father’s vocation and entered politics. After losing in an election as Conservative candidate at the Lancashire town of Oldham, he sailed to South Africa to cover the Second Boer War as a reporter for London’s Morning Post. Shortly after his arrival, during the siege of Ladysmith, Churchill was taken prisoner when the armoured train he was travelling in was ambushed. He escaped from a prisoner of war (POW) camp in Pretoria, earning himself acclaim throughout the Empire, and joined the South African Light Horse. He saw further action before returning home to fame, victory in the Oldham election of 1900 and a seat in the House of Commons.

Building upon his recent experience in South Africa, Churchill imagined that any future European war would be a bloody, protracted affair. Accordingly, he lobbied for Britain’s defence spending to be directed toward building up the Royal Navy (RN). As First Lord of the Admiralty, Churchill worked tirelessly to hasten the RN’s combat readiness and championed the largest naval expansion in British history. Firmly convinced of the benefits of oil over coal, he was instrumental in commissioning the new Queen Elizabeth class battleships – powerful and fast vessels powered by oil. By 1914, Britain had the largest navy in the world. With great foresight, Churchill also presented a bill to Parliament to purchase a 51 per cent stake in the Anglo-Iranian Company – the future British Petroleum (BP) – which further cemented Whitehall’s strategic interests in the Middle East.

An ardent proponent of the above mentioned 1915 Dardanelles operation, Churchill believed that it might, if successful, induce neutral Greece and other Balkan states to join the war on the Allied side. On 25 April 1915, the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, a mixed British, Australian, New Zealand and French group, under the command of General Sir Ian Hamilton, landed on the Gallipoli peninsula. Opposing the invasion – the largest amphibious assault to date – was the Turkish Fifth Army under German General Otto Liman von Sanders, head of the German Military Mission to Turkey. Leading one of the two Turkish divisions already stationed on the peninsula was Lieutenant Colonel Mustafa Kemal – a man already familiar with the area from the earlier Balkan wars. It has been suggested that Kemal’s experience at Tobruk was a lesson on how warships would support an amphibious landing and protect those troops being ferried ashore.

Hence, on hearing the distant thunder of naval gunfire, which heralded the Allied invasion, Kemal exceeded his command authority and, compass and map in hand, rushed the men of his 57th Regiment forward to repel the first waves of assaulting infantry.

The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), meanwhile, had unintentionally landed at the wrong beach – later to become known as Anzac Cove – and now faced stiff resistance, steep cliffs and a morass of tortuous ridges and gullies. Bitter fighting broke out; the ANZACs desperate to retain their toehold, the Turks determined to drive them back into the water. A proposal to evacuate the beachhead later the same day was vetoed. Digging in, the Australian soldiers earned the enduring soubriquet ‘Digger’.

Leslie Morshead

One of the junior Australian officers who waded ashore at Gallipoli was Leslie Morshead, a former schoolteacher born on 18 September 1889. Morshead was commissioned as a lieutenant in in the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the 1st Australian Imperial Force (AIF) in September 1914. Promoted to captain on 8 January 1915, he landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, where and his battalion made the best progress of any Australian unit. Under heavy fire from the Turks, who dominated the high ground, Morshead was quick to assess the situation and reassure his men, who were shaken by determined Turkish counter-attacks and the horrors of war. Charles Bean, Australia’s then-official historian, later described him as a ‘commander marked beyond most others as a fighting leader in whom the traditions of the British Army has been bottled from his childhood like tight-corked champagne’.9

Further along the Gallipoli peninsula, British and French troops had also made little headway from the beachhead. Reinforcements and a new offensive led to further bloody fighting in August, but without a decisive result. Paradoxically, both sides were soon ensconced in trenches, behind barbed wire stretched across a chaotic battlefield that resembled the Western Front. Territorial gains were correspondingly measured in yards, with small pockets of land captured in bloody hand-to-hand combat. Morshead’s bravery during intelligence-gathering patrols across no-man’s-land and repelling Turkish counter-attacks merited special mention in dispatches.10 This early experience in stealthily probing enemy positions would prove invaluable for Morshead in France, and later at Tobruk, where his troops would similarly venture out beyond the perimeter wire during the hours of darkness.

Dissatisfied with the progress in the Dardanelles, Churchill sacked his commanding officer, General Hamilton. His successor, Lieutenant General Sir Charles Monro, saw little point in continuing the costly campaign, and recommended an evacuation. Under the very noses of the Turkish defenders, the combined Allied force was stealthily withdrawn, without loss, through December and early January 1916. For the Turks, Gallipoli represented a major triumph. Their hero, Kemal, was promoted to general, and today he is celebrated as Atatürk, the father of modern Turkey.

For Churchill, the Gallipoli enterprise proved catastrophic. ‘Let me stand or fall by the Dardanelles,’ he proclaimed.11 Prime Minister Herbert Asquith’s response was to demote Churchill from the Admiralty. Subsequently blamed for the whole debacle, Churchill resigned from the War Cabinet on 11 November 1915, his political career seemingly over. A week later, he was back in France on active service. Relishing a return to the battlefield, he declined the command of a brigade and instead joined the 2nd Battalion Grenadier Guards, where he was appointed battalion commander in the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers. After six eventful months on the front lines, and several lucky escapes from death or serious injury, Churchill returned home to resurrect his flagging political career. Hounded by continued taunts over his responsibility for the Dardanelles operation – a claim overturned by an independent review in March 1917 – Churchill was appointed minister of munitions in June 1917. Importantly, one of the projects Churchill threw his characteristic energy into in this position was the development of what he termed a ‘land ship’. Since his Admiralty days, Churchill had enthusiastically supported this novel project to overcome the gridlock of trench warfare, and now he had the chance to bring it to life. It was an armoured, caterpillar-tracked weapon that would revolutionise warfare – what we know today as the tank.

The Siege of Kut

Shortly after Gallipoli, while Churchill was serving on the front lines of Europe, the British Army endured another humiliating defeat at the hands of the Turks in Mesopotamia. This time the lesson was in siege warfare. After occupying Basra (in modern day Iraq) in November 1914, to safeguard their Persian oil facilities, and protect India from the threat posed by the Turkish Sixth Army, the British pushed onward towards the capital, Baghdad. Reaching the town of Ctesiphon, Major General Charles Townsend’s largely Indian force was held up by Ottoman troops under the command of the elderly German Field Marshal Colmar von der Goltz. Falling back to the ancient town of Kut-el-Amara, Townsend decided, hesitantly, to stand his ground. He predicted that his garrison would be isolated for up to two months before there was any hope of relief, but was gravely misguided in the belief that he could emulate an earlier British feat: The defence of Chitral on India’s North West Frontier in 1895 in which a besieged force of 400 British men was successfully relieved after six weeks.

The siege of Kut began on 7 December 1915. After 143 days and several valiant but futile relief attempts, Townsend surrendered his long-suffering garrison of 13,000 men on 29 April 1916, thus ending the longest unrelieved siege in British history. A further 23,000 men had been lost during an unsuccessful relief attempt. Kut was a brutal reminder of the folly of allowing a sizable force, with flagging morale, inadequate defences and insufficient means of supply, to become besieged for a protracted period. A costly misjudgement, Kut yielded an enormous propaganda windfall for Germany and its then ally, Turkey.

Italy Enters the War

Despite Italy’s apparent neutrality and reluctance to enter the war in Europe, Prime Minister Antonio Salandra was nevertheless keen to use the conflict as a lever to elevate his country to Great Power status. On 26 April 1915, Rome became an opportunistic signatory to the secretive Treaty of London. It promised Italy, in victory, the Italian-speaking territories of Trentino, South Tyrol, Trieste and northern Dalmatia, plus colonial compensation in Africa and Asia Minor. For this reason, after nine months of uncertainty, and with the promise of more generous concessions than what the Central Powers offered, Italy entered the war alongside Britain and France.

In Milan, Mussolini remained vehemently opposed to war. One of Italy’s most prominent young socialists, he had earlier founded the newspaper La Lotta di Classe (The Class Struggle). The paper’s success led to his appointment as editor of the official socialist broadsheet: Avanti! (Forward!). It was at the helm of this anti-militarist, anti-nationalist paper that Mussolini vented his anger over Italy’s decision to join the war. ‘Down with the War. We remain neutral,’ he wrote in an August 1914 article.12 Inspired by the Marxist principle that social revolution is usually a consequence of war, Mussolini’s ardent stance shifted in an abrupt about-face, and to such a degree that he turned to actively supporting Italian belligerence. Predictably, such a radical change of thinking led to Mussolini’s expulsion from the Socialist Party, which in turn drove him to establish a new pro-war newspaper, Il popolo d’Italia, which was to become a driving force behind Italy’s widespread support of the war.

Notwithstanding its own unpreparedness to wage a land war in Europe, Rome declared war on Austria–Hungary on 23 May 1915 (Italian rivalry against Austria dated back to the period after the Napoleonic Wars, when several large Italian cities were ceded to Austria). The first surprise assault, however, quickly floundered. What followed was a series of ineffective and costly offensives against the Austro-Hungarian forces along the Isonzo River (in what today is Slovenia), in one of the most difficult fronts of the entire war.

Italian aggression also hauled the ongoing Libyan conflict into the First World War. This prompted the Sanusi to renew their Turkish alliance and, with idealistic abandon, join the war against Britain and France. To fight the 60,000-odd Italian troops stationed in Libya, Sanusi insurgents were supplied with arms and military advisors from both Germany and Turkey. The Italians, who had declared war against the Germans on 28 August, now found themselves fighting German guns in Libya as well. The Sanusi, under Turkish leadership, also launched a campaign into neighbouring Egypt in October 1915, with the objective of tying down British and Italian forces in North Africa. They advanced across the Western Desert to within miles of Mersa Matruh before being beaten back by a composite British column.

The Italians, realising that the Sanusi might attack Tobruk as well – an area surrounded by open desert and devoid of natural protection – began fortifying the harbour and constructing an extensive outer perimeter to ward off a landward attack. No assault was ever launched, however, and Tobruk later played host to the Anglo-Italo mission in January 1917, in concert with the peace negotiations during which the Sanusi leadership formally concluded the First Italo-Sanusi War.13 Meanwhile, Italian losses continued to mount in the inconclusive battles along the Italian Front. A combined German–Austrian push through the Isonzo front in October 1917 led to the disastrous fall of Caporetto, in which the demoralised Regio Esercito (Royal [Italian] Army) lost some 600,000 troops – mostly as prisoners of war or through widespread desertion. The war had not played into Italy’s hands as originally hoped. Prime Minister Antonio Salandra’s government fell after a victorious 1916 Austrian offensive. His successor, Paolo Boselli, was similarly ousted from office after the Italian defeat at Caporetto. Vittorio Emanuele Orlando became the next prime minister in 1917. A strong supporter of Italy’s entry into the war, he would also back Mussolini when he seized power in 1922.

For the moment, however, Mussolini was fighting as a corporal in the Bersaglieri (or ‘sharpshooters’) along the Isonzo River. Wounded in action by a grenade blast in February 1917, he was discharged from a military hospital in Milan and returned to his newspaper. There, the future dictator began challenging what he saw as the feebleness of Italian internal politics, in what he called upholding the cause of the common soldier. At that time, there was a real possibility that the Italian military, beset by strikes and anti-war demonstrations, would also collapse. Revolution could foreseeably follow, leading to a political watershed similar to the one unfolding in Russia. (The riots in Petrograd in March 1917 had prompted the abdication of the Tsar, followed in November by the Bolshevik Revolution. Shortly afterwards, Moscow signed an armistice with the Central Powers.)

Erwin Rommel

Among the German officers serving on the Italian Front in 1917 was a young professional soldier from an elite mountain battalion. He would later become one of the most well-known German generals of the Second World War. His name: Erwin Rommel. Born at Heidenheim, Württemberg in 1891, a youthful Rommel broke with the family tradition of teaching to become an officer cadet in the 124th Württemberg Infantry Regiment in 1910. The following year he met Lucia Maria ‘Lucie’ Mollin, whom he married in 1916. He saw action in France, Romania, and Italy, and became renowned for his leadership at the front, calculated risk taking, tactical prowess and ability to deftly exploit a situation. One of his greatest successes was the capture of Monte Matajur on 26 October 1917 – a bold thrust that netted more than 150 Italian officers, 9,000 troops and eighty-one artillery pieces. Shortly afterwards, his unit entered Longarone and captured a further 10,000 enemy troops. Promoted to captain, he successfully lobbied his superiors to receive the Pour le Mérite – Germany’s highest decoration at the time, and the equivalent of Britain’s Victoria Cross or the United States’ Medal of Honor.

It was during the course of the fighting in Italy and Romania that Rommel honed his practice of outmanoeuvring the enemy and attacking their rear via daring flanking actions. These first lessons in combat would influence the future practitioner of mobile armoured warfare. In this way, he was ahead of some of his future Allied opponents, including Leslie Morshead and Bernard Montgomery, whose early influences in battle were shaped by the bloody quagmire of positional trench warfare rather than rapid manoeuvring.

The German High Command now concentrated on winning the war in the West, though time was running out for the Central Powers. The last nation to join the war on Germany’s side – Bulgaria, in October 1915 – was also the first to seek an armistice in September 1918. The Turks followed suit shortly afterwards. Uprisings in Vienna and Budapest after a major victory by the Italians (reinforced with British and French troops) forced Austria–Hungary to withdraw from the war as well. Faced with mounting starvation and civil unrest, the failure of its March 1918 offensive, and a successful new Allied counteroffensive in July 1918 (with the American Expeditionary Force), Germany signed an armistice on 11 November 1918. The ‘Great War’ was now over. It was, however, not the ‘war to end all wars’, since the framework for an even larger conflict had already begun to take shape.

The Interwar Period and the Rise of Fascism

On 28 June 1919, within the Hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versailles, German representatives signed the Treaty of Versailles, a peace accord designed to permanently quash any German military threat to France. In contrast to 1871, it was now the Germans who were humiliated, their fatherland stripped of its Great Power status. Germany’s post-war discontent rivalled the resentment festering in victorious Italy. Having joined the Entente nations for a share in the spoils, Rome was indignant over the terms of the 1919 treaty of Saint Germain, which failed to honour the Allies’ secret 1915 promise. Former Austrian territories on the Adriatic Sea were given to the newly created Kingdom of Yugoslavia, while Britain and France helped themselves to the former Ottoman territories and Germany’s African colonies – a slap across the face that only hastened Italy’s political upheaval. Italy’s meagre pickings amounted to only an oasis on the Egyptian–Libyan frontier (ceded from Britain) and a trifling change (by France) to the Libyan-Tunisian frontier. Eventually, after much haggling, Britain also conceded part of her East African colony, the province of Jubaland, in 1925.

Political feebleness, crippling inflation, chronic food shortages, strikes and civil turmoil gave rise to a new paramilitary, black-shirted brigade of mostly right-wing veterans and students – the first Fascists. Their charismatic and outspoken leader, Benito Mussolini, dubbed his followers the Fasci di Combattimento, after an ancient Roman symbol of authority. After his historic ‘March on Rome’ in October 1922, Mussolini became prime minister of a fascist-dominated Italian coalition government. Three years later, he assumed dictatorial powers. As Il Duce – the leader – Mussolini became known as the man who made ‘the trains run on time’. A gifted diplomat, he obtained generous concessions in the settlement of Italy’s war debt, both from an admiring Chancellor of the Exchequer, Winston Churchill, and the United States. A visionary, he dreamed of a new Italian Empire and a time when his military would avenge the lingering humiliation of Adowa and Caporetto.

Adolf Hitler

In Germany, a man named Adolf Hitler was closely watching the Duce’s ascent to power. Born on 20 April 1889 at Braunau am Inn in northern Austria, Hitler had left school early with a poor academic record and spent most of his early life in Linz and Vienna as a part-time decorator and aspiring artist. Despite having been declared unfit for Austrian service earlier in his life, Hitler was accepted into the German Army and assigned to the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment as a Meldegänger, or dispatch runner. Serving on the bloody Western Front, he was twice decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross First and Second Class. For Hitler – like Winston Churchill and Benito Mussolini – fate had intervened on the battlefield on several occasions, shielding him from death while many of his comrades fell. He was hospitalised for injuries in 1918, and discharged after the armistice, amidst the innumerable problems troubling interwar Germany. By that time, Adolf Hitler had become embittered.

After a botched coup in 1923, and a period in prison, where he dictated the first volume of his political manifesto Mein Kampf (My Struggle), Hitler emerged to once again take control of the Nazi Party. In January 1933, Hitler became chancellor of Germany, grandly proclaiming a new 1,000-year empire – the Third Reich – that was to (ultimately) last twelve years and three months. Withdrawing Germany from the League of Nations in 1934, Hitler revealed his secret rearmament programme the next year and reintroduced conscription. Then, in complete defiance of the Versailles treaty, he reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936. Nazi Germany’s armed forces – the Wehrmacht – were now on a war footing, and Hitler’s expansionist intentions became all too clear in 1938, with the bloodless annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia.

Mussolini’s imperialistic ambitions also came to light during this turbulent period, beginning with the second Italo-Sanusi war in 1923. By this time, Italian jurisdiction over Libya had been formally recognised under the Treaty of Lausanne. And, whereas Mussolini had once sided with the Libyans’ cause, he now unleashed a campaign to brutally suppress them. Although the odds overwhelmingly favoured the well-armed Italians, small Sanusi bands were still able to a wage a successful guerrilla war against the slow and unwieldy Italian columns. Realising that stronger measures were needed to crush the resistance, Mussolini issued a proclamation calling for the Arabs to surrender unconditionally or face extermination. It cost the native population dearly. With the outside world largely oblivious to their plight, some 60,000 Libyans perished in concentration camps, public hangings, shootings, large-scale deportations and mass starvation.14

Sanusi resistance was finally worn down by Marshals Pietro Badoglio and Rodolfo Graziani by the end of 1931. In the final twelve months of the fighting, the Italians slaughtered an estimated 1,605 Sanusi (and captured 600 camels) for the price of 132 killed and 257 wounded. Having pitilessly quelled native resistance, large sums were invested in the development of a modern strategic infrastructure, including railways, roads and aerodromes. Colonisation was encouraged, and by 1936, the resident Italian population in Libya had swelled to 110,000. Tobruk also gained prominence as an important stop on Britain’s new air service to India. Imperial Airways’ Short Calcutta aircraft would leave Greece, arrive in Tobruk in the afternoon for a night’s accommodation, and set off for the next stop, Alexandria, early in the morning. Dutch KLM aircraft en route to Batavia (today Jakarta) also flew via Tobruk, as had Antipodean aviator, Bert Hinkler, on his record-breaking 1928 solo flight from London to Australia.

Presage to War

Mussolini no doubt monitored Japan’s 1931 invasion of Manchuria (north-east China) with strong interest, watching the League of Nations’ impotence at first-hand. Having smashed Sanusi resistance in Libya, in October 1935 he thumbed his nose at the League and, ignoring the 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact, which prohibited the use of war to achieve national policy, invaded Abyssinia (today Ethiopia). He entered the capital, Addis Ababa, in May 1936, strengthening his influence over the Red Sea and presenting a new danger to the British at Suez.

London and Cairo became anxious about future Fascist moves inside Africa, though Mussolini’s first gambit was, in the long run, to backfire. This new menace to Britain’s African interests encouraged Whitehall to modernise and boost its military presence in Egypt, then still chiefly dependent upon foot soldiers and cavalry. The newly mechanised Mobile Force created from the existing Cairo Cavalry Brigade became a formation whose expertise in desert driving and navigation – as General von Schweppenburg had witnessed first-hand – would prove invaluable in any future fighting in the Western Desert.

Mussolini’s Abyssinian campaign may have avenged the memory of Adowa, but it had come at a considerable cost in terms of men and materiel. Moreover, this dusty new colony was devoid of the untapped mineral wealth that the Italian industry so badly needed; precious natural resources at home had been further depleted when the Fascist and Nazi parties supported General Francisco Franco’s Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War (July 1936 to April 1939) – a proving ground for Europe’s newest weaponry. In yet another geo-strategic disappointment for Mussolini, his involvement in the Spanish conflict failed to deliver the rewards of Majorca and Ceuta (in Spanish North Africa), opposite Gibraltar.

British naval bases at Gibraltar and Egypt had long rankled the Italians as maritime manacles ‘imprisoning’ them within the confines of the Mediterranean. Rome yearned for the ancient ideal – mare nostrum (‘our sea’) – rather than an Italian lake constricted by small British-controlled outlets at either end. Thus, in order to gain ‘free access to the oceans’, Mussolini planned to conquer Egypt – part of a grander vision for a new Roman Empire stretching from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean. Such flamboyant dreaming would, of course, require a large, well-equipped military. But as a consequence of his early expansionist policies, a poor industrial base and a dearth of raw materials, Italy’s rearmament programme was lagging well behind those of Britain, France and Germany. Italy was also weakened by the recent fighting against Ethiopia and the Spanish Republic and it would be many years before the country was ready fight a major war, and then only with considerable economic and military assistance.

With his French and British relations deteriorating, Mussolini turned to Germany for support – the foundation of a new Rome–Berlin Axis. In October 1936, it was agreed that Rome would have political – but not economic – influence over the Mediterranean, a position that would cause future tension within the Axis camp. On 22 May 1939, Italy signed the Pact of Steel with Nazi Germany: an agreement that one country would come to the other’s aid if attacked. While Mussolini clarified to Hitler that his country was unprepared to wage war against a European power before 1943 at the earliest, and even then only with the assistance of considerable amounts of German military aid, Hitler expressed his wish not to become involved in any future Mediterranean conflict, as this would be an Italian theatre of war.

Aligned for political purposes, the tempestuous relationship between Rome and Berlin began to sour in the turbulent days preceding the German invasion of Poland, fuelled by mistrust and lies amid the political uncertainty of a continent headed for war. Mussolini’s position shilly-shallied. One minute he favoured neutrality, the next moment he envisaged a sense of honour in marching alongside Germany. He dithered though fear of Hitler’s angst and a possible denunciation of the pact between the two countries. An Italian request for materiel was delivered to Germany in an attempt to demonstrate the current inability of Italy to enter into conflict without receiving vast supplies of additional provisions. Hitler’s reply brought the promise of iron, wood, and coal together with the acknowledgement of his proposed single-handed onslaught aimed at Poland, France, and England.15

Mussolini’s son-in-law and foreign minister, Count Galeazzo Ciano, staunchly opposed his homeland being swept into a new war, especially in an alliance with Germany. In this, he mirrored Mussolini’s own 1914 stance. He urged Mussolini to appreciate his role as being placed secondary to Hitler, his diminished prestige, as well as the anti-German mood of the Italian people.16 For the most part they felt trapped by the Pact of Steel, fearing and mistrusting Hitler. The acrimonious Axis partnership, as we will discover, was already unravelling.

Europe was nearing crisis point. Hitler played his next hand on 1 September 1939 when nearly 1½ million German troops invaded Poland – a gamble that plunged the world into war again.

3

Blitzkrieg in the West

‘The twentieth century will be known in history as the Century of Fascism.’

– Benito Mussolini

Twenty-one years after the signing of the Armistice, the major protagonists of the First World War – Germany, France and Britain – were again at war. Mussolini, meanwhile, monitored this new conflict closely, displaying what Ciano described as ‘intermittent belligerent flashes’ while he watched what was dubbed the German Blitzkrieg (literally, ‘lightning war’) drive deeper into Poland.1