Medieval Ireland (New Gill History of Ireland 1) E-Book

Michael Richter

• Herausgeber: Gill Books
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2005

Beschreibung

Medieval Ireland – The Enduring Tradition, the first instalment in the New Gill History of Ireland series, offers an overview of Irish history from the coming of Christianity in the fifth century to the Reformation in the sixteenth, concentrating on Ireland's cultural and social life and highlighting Irish society's inherent stability in an very unstable period. Such a broad survey reveals features otherwise not easily detected. For all the complexity of political developments, Irish society remained basically stable and managed to withstand the onslaught of both the Vikings and the English. The inherent strength of Ireland consisted in the cultural heritage from pre-historic times, which remained influential throughout the centuries discussed in Professor Michael Richter's engaging and informative book. Irish history has traditionally been described either in isolation or in the manner in which it was influenced by outside forces, especially by England. This book strikes a different balance. First, the time span covered is longer than usual, and more attention is paid to the early medieval centuries than to the later period. Secondly, less emphasis is placed in this book on the political or military history of Ireland than on general social and cultural aspects. As a result, a more mature interpretation of medieval Ireland emerges, one in which social and cultural norms inherited from pre-historic times are seen to survive right through the Middle Ages. They gave Irish society a stability and inherent strength unparalleled in Europe. Christianity came in as an additional, enriching factor. Medieval Ireland: Table of Contents - The Celts Part I. Early Ireland (before c. AD 500) - Ireland in Prehistoric Times - Political Developments in Early Times Part II Ireland in the First Part of the Middle Ages (c. AD 500-1100) - The Beginnings of Christianity in Ireland - The Formation of the Early Irish Church - Christian Ireland in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries - Secularisation and Reform in the Eighth Centuries - The Age of the Vikings Part III. Ireland in the Second part of the Middle Ages (c.1100-1500) - Ireland under Foreign Influence: The Twelfth Century - Ireland from the Reign of John to the Statutes of Kilkenny - The End of the Middle Ages - The Enduring Tradition

Leseprobe

New Gill History of Ireland

Medieval Ireland

The Enduring Tradition

REVISED EDITION

Michael Richter

with a foreword by Próinséas Ní Chatháin

Gill & Macmillan

To my friends in Ireland

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Dedication

Foreword by Próinséas Ní Chatháin

Preface to the first English edition

Preface to the second English edition

Maps

Map 1 Ireland c.800, provinces and principal sites

Map 2 The most important Irish monasteries

Map 3 Ireland and western Britain c.1200

Map 4 Ireland c.1500

Chapter 1 The Celts

Part I Early Ireland (before c. A.D. 500)

Chapter 2 Ireland in prehistoric times

The country

The population

The Celtic languages

The Irish language (Goedelic, Gaelic)

Aristocratic society in pre-Christian times (‘Heroic Age’)

Social stratification

Settlement

A Celtic society?

Chapter 3 Political developments in early times

Britain after the Romans

Irish expansion into Britain

The political organisation of Ireland

The rise of the Uí Néill

Chaos?

Part II Ireland in the First Part of the Middle Ages (c. A.D. 500–1100)

Chapter 4 The beginnings of Christianity in Ireland

Chapter 5 The formation of the early Irish Church

Monastic founders

Colum Cille (Columba the Elder, 521/22–597)

Columbanus (Columba the Younger, 543–615)

Some aspects of the early Irish Church

Peregrinatio—origins and significance

Ireland—a Christian country?

Chapter 6 Christian Ireland in the seventh and eighth centuries

Adoption of the Latin language Insular Latin

Biblical texts and Bible studies

The Penitentials

The beginnings of Latin literature

The Annals

Writings on the subject of kingship

The secular law tracts

The Irish canon law collection

Art

Ireland and her neighbours

Chapter 7 Secularisation and reform in the eighth century

The rise of Armagh

The reform of the Church (Céli Dé)

Chapter 8 The age of the Vikings

Part III Ireland in the Second Part of the Middle Ages (c.1100–1500)

Chapter 9 Ireland under foreign influence the twelfth century

Ireland as seen by a foreigner

The reform of the Irish Church

The English intervention in Ireland

Dublin in the late twelfth century

Intellectual life

Chapter 10 Ireland from the reign of John to the Statutes of Kilkenny

The new lords

The limits of expansion

The Church

The first crisis Edward Bruce in Ireland (1315–18)

Ireland in the reign of Edward III

Irish society old and new structures

Chapter 11 The end of the Middle Ages

The end of the lordship

Ireland outside the lordship

Ireland as a land of travel

Education

The Augustinian Order in Connacht in the fifteenth century

Society

The learned tradition

Chapter 12 The enduring tradition

Abbreviations and Sigla

Bibliography and References

List of Irish Words

A note on the spelling and pronunciation of Irish words and names

Copyright

About the Author

About Gill & Macmillan

Foreword

Próinséas Ní Chatháin

This English translation of Irland im Mittelalter is a welcome addition to serious literature on the subject. Here we have a book which could not have been written with the same authority by either an Irishman or an Englishman.

A Continental historian who indulges in neither Iromania nor Irophobia, Professor Richter strikes a good balance which may sometimes ruffle insular feathers but which is fresh and free from prejudice and preconceptions.

He is singularly equipped to synthesise the complex tangle of early and medieval Ireland. His sojourn in Wales and experience of Welsh sources (particularly his work on Gerald of Wales), his familiarity with the writings of Bede, his work on Carolingian literacy and learning are all brought to bear on the Irish evidence. The twelve years which he spent in Ireland may not have made him Hibernicis ipsis Hiberniorem but he immersed himself in Irish scholarship with more dedication than many an Irishman.

The fruits of his participation in the Medieval Settlement Group, the Medieval Studies Seminar and in Early Irish and Hiberno-Latin studies at University College, Dublin, as well as in the International Colloquia on Early Ireland and Medieval Europe are clearly to be seen in the breadth of the material which Professor Richter sets before the reader.

Medieval Ireland: The Enduring Tradition will be read and enjoyed by many.

Preface to the first English edition

The starting-point of this book was a series of lectures which I gave at the University of Vienna in the winter of 1981/82. The keen interest of the students in Irish history and Irish culture prompted me to write a book on the subject. The Continental background may help to explain the title: ‘medieval’ is understood to mean simply ‘post-classical’. On balance, it seems useful to retain this term for English and Irish readers.

The kind reception which the book obtained from Irish, English and Continental reviewers made me agree to a suggestion by F. X. Martin, OSA, head of the department in which I then taught medieval history, to have the book translated into English. I decided not to do the translation myself, knowing that I would be tempted to rewrite the book for the new audience. Although I have followed the translation process closely, the book is simply an English version of the German original. Naturally, I have corrected a few errors (a number of which were kindly pointed out to me by reviewers and readers); in two places, I have omitted brief references to things specifically German which would have meant little to English readers, and in one place, in Chapter 9, I have restructured a paragraph. The bibliography has also been updated and revised; it should be stressed that it remains only a basic guide.

It is a pleasure to give thanks to all those involved in the realisation of this book: to F. X. Martin for his initial suggestion and subsequent encouragement; to Maurice Keen for his decision to publish it in the series New Studies in Medieval History; to the late Denis Bethel, founder of that series, both friend and demanding colleague for a number of years; to the publisher, particularly to Ms Vanessa Coachman, Vanessa Graham and to the translators. Unforeseen events in the course of the translation, particularly my move from Ireland to Germany, made it necessary to enlist a second translator. I should like to express my immense gratitude to Adrian Keogh for his help, skill and enthusiasm in translation and revision. I am also much indebted to those who have helped with suggestions and improvements, to Próinséas Ní Chatháin, Jane Inglis and Imelda Gardiner.

In some respects, this book is the result of many discussions I had with my students and colleagues in Ireland. Ultimately, it became an alternative view of Irish history in the Middle Ages. As such, it is intended to enliven the discussion and to call into question what may appear at times to be established truths. History is what we make of it. I am very grateful for the many years I spent in Ireland and taught at University College, Dublin, and for all I learned there. Habeat sua fata libellus.

Konstanz, 17 March 1987

Preface to the second English edition

I am very happy to see this book coming out in a second edition. My thanks go to the publisher and staff in this matter. The German original of this book appeared in a revised edition in 1996. The revision consisted mainly in the correction of mistakes, and an updating of the bibliography, including my own work. These changes have been included in the present edition. Naturally, there have been numerous publications in the field since the book first appeared. However, generally speaking a book of this nature cannot be ‘updated’ in the manner of changing spare parts in a dishwasher. In any case, the main theme of the book—cultural continuity in the face of political changes—will stand. The second edition of the German original includes a number of illustrations; unfortunately, it has not been feasible to include these in the present work. I would like to take this opportunity to refer to recent major works which, with their bibliographies, will help the reader:

Fergus Kelly, A Guide to Early Irish Law (Dublin, 1988). Irish Historic Towns Atlas vol. I, Kildare, Carrickfergus, Bandon, Kells, Mullingar, Athlone (Dublin, 1996). Próinséas Ní Chatháin and Michael Richter (eds), Ireland and Europe in the early Middle Ages: Learning and Literature (Stuttgart, 1996). Fergus Kelly, Early Irish Farming (Dublin, 1997). Michael Richter, Ireland and her neighbours in the seventh century (Dublin and New York, 1999). Thomas M. Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland (Cambridge, 2000). Próinséas Ní Chatháin and Michael Richter (eds), Ireland and Europe in the early Middle Ages: Texts and Transmission (Dublin, 2002).

Konstanz, 23 November 2004

Maps

1Ireland c.800, provinces and principal sites

2The most important Irish monasteries

3Ireland and western Britain c.1200

4Ireland c.1500

1

The Celts

The history of Europe begins with the Greek civilisation which shaped the Mediterranean world in the last few centuries before Christ. Our information about the Hellenistic world, which was continued in many respects in the Roman Empire, comes just as much from contemporary written sources as it does from archaeological evidence. These sources provide a relatively complete picture which has, up to now, always been used in examining the past.

The culture of the Celts who at that time had a determining influence on Europe north of the Alps is, however, much less accessible. The Celts themselves did not possess any written culture; written accounts which have been handed down from pre-Christian centuries are sketchy and from outside sources. These accounts show particular signs of Greek and Roman moral concepts in their interpretation (interpretatio Romana). However, the substantial material culture of the Celts being evaluated by archaeologists does add to an overall picture which is an integral part of the prehistoric and early historic periods of European history.

During the last century before Christ, the remarkable Celtic culture was overshadowed on the mainland by the simultaneous expansion of the Germanic peoples of northern Europe and the Romans from the Mediterranean. The remains of this culture were best preserved in the extreme western areas, particularly in the British Isles. In the Middle Ages, the world of the Celts was regarded as finis terrae, a world where many strange phenomena persisted which aroused amazement and often defied understanding.

The Celtic peoples did not, of course, live completely isolated on the outer edges of the world; rather they contributed with their own dynamism to the shaping of Europe in various ways. For this reason alone it is important for anyone wishing to understand the complexity of European history to study the medieval Celtic peoples. This book is concerned with the Irish, the most important and influential of the Celtic peoples in the Middle Ages. We are relatively well informed about the Irish, since they developed a written culture at an earlier stage than most other European peoples. After those of the Greeks and Romans, theirs was the most significant European culture of the early Middle Ages.

Ireland’s achievements during this time emerged in conjunction with the mainland. Outside influences which reached Ireland partly via other Celtic peoples were, on the one hand, absorbed and digested, while the Irish culture, on the other hand, influenced its immediate neighbours even more than it did the other peoples of Europe. Any study of medieval Ireland must therefore also include some reference to the neighbouring Celtic peoples, the Picts, Britons and Bretons.

Celtic culture in Europe expressed itself more in the material, artistic and linguistic areas than politically, continuing unbroken up to the present in the linguistic field alone. In the fourth century, St Jerome reports quite correctly on the similarity of the (Celtic) language of the Galatians in Asia Minor to that of the Treveri (from Trier) in western Europe. At the time he wrote this, Roman rule in western Europe was nearing its end. Gaul, which was previously Celtic, had become a Latin-speaking region, remaining so even after the end of the Roman Empire. In Britain, the development was rather different. Despite 350 years of Roman dominance, the Celtic language had not disappeared, and soon became prevalent again following the withdrawal of the Roman legions, although it had been influenced by Latin in many ways. This Celtic language is still alive in Wales today.

As the neighbouring island of Ireland had never been subjected to Roman rule, the Celtic language was never in danger there. Written documentary evidence of it exists from the fourth century onwards and it is still spoken in Ireland today, particularly in the extreme western regions of the island. The Irish language is quite different from the Celtic language of Britain, in that it is more archaic. Although philologists can recognise certain common features in the morphology, structure and vocabulary of the two languages, it must be assumed that they already differed considerably in early historic times. There are no indications that the various Celtic peoples in the Middle Ages were aware of belonging to one family of languages, just as there was no sense of political or cultural unity.

Exactly when groups of Celts settled in the British Isles is uncertain but it was most probably a complex process lasting several centuries. Groups of Celts came to Ireland both from Britain and directly from the Continent; this process was completed in the first century B.C., after which any disputes were confined to the islands. With the expansion of the Roman Empire in western Europe, Celtic culture became increasingly an insular culture.

Archaeological evidence and accounts from outside indicate that at the beginning of the Celtic period civilisation throughout Europe was agriculturally orientated, involved mainly in cattle breeding, just as it was in early medieval Ireland. There were, however, no equivalents of the mainland Celtic oppida or of coinage in Ireland. The large stone constructions and tombs still preserved in Ireland are of pre-Celtic origin, dating from the Neolithic period.

In social and religious areas there are, on the other hand, parallels which would indicate some degree of continuity. A learned Celtic class, the druids, documented by Caesar in the case of Gaul, also existed among the Irish and the British. The dynamism of the medieval Celtic peoples, and of the Irish in particular, is based on the fact that they had an intellectual class which was, in many respects, able to match the intellectual demands of the Christian culture.

Finally, there is ample evidence of Celtic art of the La Tène culture in the British Isles. Ornamental work featuring spirals, the plant tendril and the trumpet shape appears frequently on stone and parchment in early medieval works of art.

Important evidence of the Celtic culture in Europe was preserved in the British Isles into historical times. It has already been made clear that even in Ireland, where the best evidence of continuation of Celtic civilisation survives in language and institutions, the Celtic culture made up only a part and not the whole of the prehistoric legacy. This is even more true for the historical period, which this book is concerned with.

History commences where contemporary written evidence first starts to appear; in the case of Ireland, this was in the fourth century A.D. As everywhere, it begins very gradually with written evidence which, in this case, originates from the Christian-Roman world, dealing initially with the area of Christianity and only gradually including non-Christian areas. Despite the wealth of information available, the earliest Irish sources are not easily accessible and their value and significance are, even today, frequently disputed. Agreement in secondary literature exists, at best, in rough outlines. With regard to the first few centuries, it is often only possible to hint at the contribution of the Celtic insular peoples in general, and that of the Irish in particular, to the development of Europe: any interpretations in this respect must remain largely speculative. It is often difficult to differentiate clearly between what was Celtic and what was simply influenced by the Celts.

The attentive observer of Ireland, nevertheless, cannot help thinking that medieval Europe was much more than the frequently conjured-up synthesis of Graeco-Roman, Christian and Germanic heritage.

Part I

Early Ireland (before c. A.D. 500)

2

Ireland in Prehistoric Times

THE COUNTRY

Ireland lies on the edge of western Europe, measuring approximately 350 miles from north-east to south-west and 200 miles from north-west to south-east. There is no point on the island which is further than 100 miles from the sea. The island was an ideal size for the political conditions of the early Middle Ages: it was large enough to be able to assert itself as an independent force against Britain, its neighbour across the sea to the east, but was also compact enough to be perceived emotionally as a unit. In this respect, Ireland was quite different from Britain which, because of its size and shape, was divided into various units which were difficult to unite.

There is a considerable amount of evidence that the Irish had the feeling in early times of belonging to a world which embraced the entire island. The sagas repeatedly refer to the ‘men of Ireland’ and the vernacular name for the country, Ériu, is to be found in literature. When one reads ‘she was the most beautiful woman of Ériu’, it does indeed mean ‘of Ireland’, but it also hints at another meaning, ‘the most beautiful woman of the world’. The island was, in some respects, a world of its own; its people retained their own special attitudes and way of life longer than in other less remote European regions.

However, Ireland was remote only in the geographical sense. Both in antiquity and in the Middle Ages, the sea proved more of a link with the outside world than a barrier. Ireland had various contacts with other regions in Europe, yet the sea still represented a certain psychological barrier, which, if anything, did more to deepen the feeling of national unity among the Irish. The sea, which surrounds the island, was almost omnipresent and the inhabitants had a curiously ambivalent attitude towards it. They were prepared to risk going to sea in curraghs, lightweight boats which were built for inland navigation and coastal fishing, but their unease in doing so can be seen in the early medieval legendary account of the voyage of the sixth-century Irish saint, Brendan.

There are many references in the hagiography to the trials and tribulations of seafaring. The familiar world ended at the coastline. Ship burials of kings of the kind known from Sutton Hoo (East Anglia) did not exist in Ireland. There are, however, references in early medieval literature to chariots as a means of transport for high-ranking persons, a legacy of the Continental and land-bound Celts.

The island has a mild, damp climate, and if snow falls it does not remain on the ground long enough for the cattle to have to be brought inside in winter. The south-west of the island has subtropical vegetation. With few exceptions, principally on the northern half of the east coast, low mountain ranges of up to 3,000 feet determine the coastline or the areas near the coast. The inland regions consist largely of badly drained lowland areas, the greatest natural resource of which is still peat.

The island did not have a geopolitical centre. It is quite clear that the coastal regions were settled relatively late, the population choosing instead to live inland. The political centres of early times, Tara and Cashel, offer broad views of the country, which, however, stop short of the sea. This in itself is significant: power in the early Middle Ages meant control of land, particularly grazing land, but it did not mean control of the coastline.

Although the feeling of unity can be seen indirectly in the political sphere, it is more distinct in the social, religious and cultural areas. Politically, the island was polycentrally structured. One reads of a division of the island roughly along a line between Dublin and Galway. The northern half was known as Leth Cuinn (‘Conn’s side’), the southern half as Leth Moga (‘Mug Nuadat’s side’, Mug, like Conn, being a mythical figure). There were four large regions which have been preserved up to the present day in the provinces of Ulster and Connacht (Leth Cuinn), Leinster and Munster (Leth Moga). In historical times, a fifth province was added, Meath (‘Midland’) which was situated between Ulster and Leinster. The old expression for ‘province’ was ‘a fifth’ (cóiced). It has been remarked, quite rightly, that ‘the fifth’ implied a sense of ‘the whole’. Nevertheless, there often were more than five cóicedaig on the island in historical times, despite the fact that this contradicts basic arithmetic.

The smallest political unit in Ireland was the kingdom, of which there were dozens. The kings were not all equally powerful: various ranks existed, including the kings of the provinces. As early as the end of the seventh century, reference was made to sovereignty over the whole island by Adomnán, Abbot of Iona († 704) who wrote of totius Everniae regni monarchia (VC 21 b, ‘rule of the Kingdom of all Ireland’). However, it is certain that supremacy was not achieved at that time. The closest to a single supremacy that medieval Ireland was ever to know was in the twelfth century.

The absence of effective political unity led to unstable political relations, the complex nature of which is still not clear, especially for the period before A.D. 800. However, despite this, the hierarchy of the kings was sufficient to prevent an all-out internal conflict.

The lack of political unity also had a positive aspect in that battles were not fought solely with weapons, but also with words and writings. As in politically disunited Germany and Italy of the late Middle Ages, there were considerable cultural achievements in Ireland which were sponsored in many different places. Although this encouragement had its origin in self-interest, the results are of inestimable value for posterity.

The oldest frequently used learned names for the island date from the late seventh century and are to be found in Adomnán’s Life of Columba: these were Ebernia or Evernia, derived from Greek, the latinised form being Hibernia, and Scotia. From the early Middle Ages onwards the term Scotia was gradually applied to the regions in northern Britain with the result that the term Hibernia became more usual for Ireland. But certainly those writing on the Continent about Scot(t)i almost always meant the Irish. The name ‘Ireland’ is of Scandinavian origin and first documented during the late Viking era. The official name of the Republic of Ireland today is Éire, and the first official language is Irish. English, which is much more widespread, is the ‘national language of equal standing’. It is not without a certain irony that the unofficial term for the whole island is the English name ‘Ireland’.

THE POPULATION

The population of Ireland in the early Middle Ages is estimated at below half a million. It can be assumed that, in the Middle Ages, Ireland was no more thinly populated than the neighbouring island to the east. The large difference in the density of population between Ireland and Britain did not develop until modern times. In England, industrialisation played a decisive role, whereas in Ireland, the population was dramatically reduced to about half of its original size by the Famine in the middle of the nineteenth century from which the country, despite an above-average birth rate, has still not recovered.

It is assumed that Ireland and Britain became separate land masses in the seventh millennium B.C. and it is from this time that the first traces of human settlement in Ireland date: large quantities of stone axes have been found to the east of the River Bann in County Antrim. These early inhabitants supported themselves by hunting and fishing, with no evidence of farming. The first period of advanced civilisation, evidenced by the megalithic tombs throughout the island, is dated to the fourth millennium B.C. and belonged to the so-called Atlantic culture of northern and western Europe.

It has not yet been established when exactly the Celtic-speaking population, which was to become dominant in historical times, came to Ireland. It is assumed that they came in several phases during the last few centuries B.C. The Celtic immigrants would have arrived by various routes, both directly from the Continent, and via pre-Roman Britain. The groups who were later to have a determining influence appear to have left the Continent before the second century B.C.

The Celtic-speaking population became dominant in Ireland, and hardly any traces of pre-Celtic languages have been preserved. Since the early medieval sources deal mainly with the Celtic-speaking ruling class, no conclusion can be drawn from the linguistic evidence as to the numerical relation between Celtic-speaking immigrants and the previous population. All we know is that the Celtic element was not originally indigenous to Ireland. Claims to the contrary go back as far as the earliest written sources; they re-emerge with the romanticism of the nineteenth century in particular, and persist to the present time, but are nothing more than propaganda.

THE CELTIC LANGUAGES

Celtic is an Indo-European group of languages which was widespread on the Continent and was brought by the migration of the Celtic tribes as far east as Asia Minor (Galatians) and as far west as the Atlantic (Gauls). With the exception of Gaulish and a few other fragments, documented linguistic evidence of Celtic is found only in the British Isles. Apart from Gaulish, the Celtic group of languages appears in two large sections which are again subdivided:

1.the Goedelic section (Irish-Gaelic, Scots-Gaelic and Manx, the language of the inhabitants of the Isle of Man);

2.the Brythonic-British section (British/Welsh, Pictish, Cornish and Breton).

The earliest evidence of the Irish-Gaelic language dates from the fourth century (Ogam inscriptions), the earliest evidence of Welsh from the sixth century (the poems of Aneirin and Taliesin); Breton dates from the eighth century (cartularies of Landévennec and Redon), whereas the earliest evidence of Manx and Cornish does not appear until the late Middle Ages. Scots-Gaelic was virtually identical with Irish-Gaelic up until the seventeenth century.

THE IRISH LANGUAGE (GOEDELIC, GAELIC)

After Latin, Irish is the language in western Europe with the longest and best-documented development. It is termed a Q-Celtic language in contrast to British which is a P-Celtic language. It must be added that Q is written as a C in Irish (e.g. Irish cenn, Welsh pen, ‘head’), which is the most archaic of the well-documented Celtic languages and shows a strong affinity to Latin (e.g. deponents ending in -r, sechithir ‘follows’; cf. Latin sequitur). From early historical times more abundant and diverse sources have been preserved in Irish than in any other non-Latin language in central or western Europe. A knowledge of Irish is an absolute prerequisite for thorough research into the early, and indeed into the later, medieval history of Ireland.

The development of the Irish language is divided into different stages:

1.Archaic Old Irish, 4th century to c.750;

2.Old Irish (O. Ir), c.750–900;

3.Middle Irish, c.900–1600 (‘Classical Irish’ 1200–1600);

4.Modern Irish, from 1600.

‘Documented’ evidence of archaic Old Irish originates in the main from Ireland, the most important being the Ogam inscriptions, the elegy Amra Coluim Chille (around 600), the law texts, as well as the Irish names in Adomnán’s Life of Columba and in the two versions of the Life of Patrick by Muirchú and Tírechán (all from the seventh century). Evidence of Old Irish is more plentiful; the Christian-ecclesiastical texts of this phase of the language were edited almost in their entirety in the Thesaurus Palaeohibernicus. This material is mostly preserved in MSS now in Continental libraries and part of it was also written on the Continent. Most important are the glosses of New Testament texts, the oldest of which are found in a Würzburg manuscript from the second half of the eighth century (Würzburg, Univ. Library, M.p.th.f. 12), in a manuscript originating from the northern Italian monastery of Bobbio, but which was presumably written in Ireland in the early decades of the ninth century and is now kept in Milan (Ambros. c.301 inf.), as well as in a Priscian manuscript from St Gallen (Sangallensis 904) of about the same period. Apart from these, there are a number of other ecclesiastical texts, the most important of which are the so-called Cambrai homily (with Irish texts, copied on the Continent around 750, by a scribe who obviously did not have a good command of Irish), a treatise on the Mass from the Stowe Missal also containing rubrics in Irish (probably written shortly after 792) and Irish texts in the Book of Armagh (around 807). A very noticeable feature in Old Irish documents is the astonishing standardisation of the language and spelling. Possible reasons for this could be either the decisive influence of one intellectual centre in Ireland (probably Bangor) or the continuing effect of the pre-Christian intellectual elite. This uniformity was lost in medieval times.

Middle Irish shows significant differences from Old Irish. This is important because a range of texts can, on the basis of their language, be assigned to early times although the preserved manuscripts themselves date from the late Middle Ages; this is the case with the corpus of Irish law, which is as superb as it is difficult. Larger collections of texts with material written in Irish are preserved in manuscripts from the twelfth century onwards.