The Little History of Galway E-Book

Colm Wallace

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Sachliteratur, Reportagen, Biografien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 243

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

Today, Galway is home to over 250,000 people and plays host to over a million tourists per year, who come from all over the world to admire and learn about the culture and history of this beautiful county. Galway has not always been so tranquil, however, and The Little History of Galway takes a look at the struggles of the county's people across the centuries, from the arrival of Stone Age man through the coming of the Normans and their conquest of the city, to Galway's eventual battle for independence. Examining pivotal moments such as the siege of Galway by the feared Oliver Cromwell, the Penal Laws and the Famine, Colm Wallace also explores the writers, artists and thinkers that have called the area home, as well as the local people who have worked hard over generations to make Galway the welcoming place that it is today.

Leseprobe

First published 2024

The History Press

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Gloucestershire, GL50 3QB

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© Colm Wallace, 2024

The right of Colm Wallace to be identified as the Author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the Publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.

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ISBN 978 1 80399 708 7

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CONTENTS

Introduction

1.    Galway: Early History, Christianity and Mythology

2.    The Vikings, the Normans and the Tribes of Galway

3.    Reformation and Plantation in Galway

4.    The 1798 Rebellion and the Dawn of the Nineteenth Century

5.    The Great Famine in County Galway

6.    The Land War and a Gaelic Revival in the West

7.    Everyday Life in Galway at the Turn of the Century

8.    Galway’s Fight for Independence

9.    Social and Political Life in Galway in the New State

10.  The Making of Modern Galway

Afterword

Select Bibliography

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Colm Wallace is a native of Renvyle, Co. Galway. Married with four children, he works as a school teacher and has completed a Masters in History at the University of Galway. This is his third book.

INTRODUCTION

County Galway lies on the west coast of the island of Ireland and stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Lough Derg and the River Suck in the east, comprising a total area of approximately 6,100 sq km, the second largest county in Ireland by size. As of 2024, it was home to a population of more than 276,000 people, making it the fifth largest of Ireland’s thirty-two counties by population. The origin of Galway’s name is uncertain, although it may come from the Irish words gall and amh meaning ‘stony river’. The area we now call Galway was shired by the English in 1569, becoming an official county. Along with counties Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo and Leitrim, Galway is situated in the western province of Connacht, the region that features most of the territory of Ireland west of the River Shannon. Galway’s coat of arms comprises a hooker, a fishing boat synonymous with the county, with five stars in the sky around it. Its motto is the Irish language phrase Ceart agus Cóir, which means ‘right and just’.

The county is divided into three distinct areas in terms of culture and topography. The rugged western end of County Galway is the region known as Connemara, a largely Irish-speaking area famed for its uplands, both the Twelve Bens and Maamturk Mountains looming large. The larger of the two ranges is the Twelve Bens (Na Beanna Beola), named after a mythological giant, Beola, and rising to 729m at Benbaun, Galway’s highest point. Connemara is also home to hundreds of lakes, including most of the second largest freshwater lake on the island of Ireland, Lough Corrib. Lough Corrib is 68 sq miles and runs north-west from Galway City, through Connemara and into Co. Mayo. It is home to hundreds of islands, several of which have ecclesiastical and historical ruins, most notably Inchagoill. Lough Mask is also one of the largest lakes in Ireland, although only about half the size of Lough Corrib, and it too is partially situated in Connemara. Several islands have the ruins of ancient buildings, most notably the Church of St Cormac on Inishmaan. The largest lake entirely situated in Co. Galway, Lough Inagh, is also in Connemara. The largest Gaeltacht (Irish-speaking area) in Ireland also lies in Connemara and features such villages as Leitir Mór, Cheathrú Rua, Carna, Ros Muc, An Spidéal, Indreabhán as well as na hOileáin Árainn (the Aran Islands).

A Currach to the Aran Islands (from On an Irish Jaunting Car by Samuel Bayne).

Connemara retains a distinct identity within the county, and although its boundaries are loosely defined, it is generally considered to be all the land in Co. Galway west of the villages of Moycullen and Barna. The main town is Clifden, known widely as the capital of Connemara, and the region borders only Co. Mayo to the north, being surrounded by the ocean on all other sides. Most of Galway’s 700km coastline is in Connemara and it is peppered with dozens of offshore islands, including four that remain permanently inhabited: Inishbofin and the three Aran Islands, Inishmore, Inishmaan and Inisheer. Several other formerly offshore islands have been bridged in the last century and a half, and now have a connection with the mainland, including Lettermore, Inishnee and Gorumna. In consequence of this unique geography, Connemara is sparsely populated, with nearly all of its 32,000 inhabitants living in scattered villages along the coast. The interior is boggy, mountainous and largely devoid of roads. The area is famed for its beauty, however, and it is much visited by tourists.

The second distinct region of County Galway is Galway City, which lies in the centre of the county, just to the east of Connemara, where Lough Corrib becomes the 6km River Corrib. The River Corrib acted as a handy crossing point in medieval times and a settlement grew around it for this reason. Originally called Baile an Srutháin (the town of the streams), it would in later times come to be known as Galway City. Today, the city has a population of more than 80,000 people and is comfortably the largest urban centre in the western province of Connacht. There is also a large population in the suburbs and just outside the city limits, particularly in the rapidly growing towns such as Claregalway, Craughwell and Oranmore on its eastern edge. Consequently, the city is a centre for employment and is home to many industries, most notably those involved in the manufacture of medical devices. It is known as a hub for arts and culture, and tourists also flock to Galway City, which has a scenic seaside location and a bustling nightlife. It has nevertheless maintained much of its medieval charm and is a popular destination for people interested in history.

The third region of the county is centred around east and south Galway, a largely flat limestone region that is characterised by fertile lands, pleasant villages and rich, low-lying pastures. Along with large stretches of prime agricultural land, this region’s topography also comprises thousands of acres of raised bogs that were traditionally used for turf cutting. Several rivers of note, including the Clare, the Clarin and the Suck, flow through east Galway, the latter draining much of the land in the region. Lough Derg, the third biggest lake in Ireland, is to the south-east. The south of the county shares a long border with Clare, while the east has shorter borders with both Co. Offaly and Co. Tipperary. There is a far longer border with Co. Roscommon to the east and north of the county. Although the region is flat, it does have the low-lying Slieve Aughty Mountains, which stretch from Loughrea to Gort in the west and Mountshannon in Co. Clare in the south-east. Their highest point is Cashlaundrumlahan, at 400m.

There is also the Esker Riada, a line of gravel hills that extend from Clarinbridge all the way through the middle of the county and onwards through Leinster. In ancient times, this ridge formally marked the border between the south and the north of Ireland. Farming is an important facet of life here and tourists are less likely to happen upon the pleasant market towns and villages that dot the landscape. South and east Galway are known for being suited to the planting of most crops, although the low-lying land is regularly flooded in the winter months. Athenry, Portumna, Loughrea, Tuam and Ballinasloe are among the largest urban centres in the east Galway region, and while traditionally they were market towns catering for the farming community in their hinterland, today they are thriving and growing centres, many acting as commuter towns for Galway.

All three regions have had storied human histories going back thousands of years. Together, these form the history of the county of Galway.

1

GALWAY: EARLY HISTORY, CHRISTIANITY AND MYTHOLOGY

THE STONE AGE

The mountains of Galway formed more than 500 million years ago and, as the last Ice Age retreated, the melting glaciers deposited soil and sand and the varied topography of the area began to take shape. The warming climate that followed allowed plants, flowers and trees to bloom. By 8000 BC, we know that there were communities of people on the island of Ireland. Little is known of these pre-Celtic people and how they lived, although they seem to have arrived on the isolated island long after the rest of southern Europe was populated. Ireland’s wet climate may have been somewhat uninviting, but the tree-covered island with abundant water and devoid of people must have seemed like fertile hunting and fishing territory all the same. The first people probably arrived to the north of the country from Scotland, spreading southwards and westwards over time. They were able to get food by hunting animals and birds, catching fish and eating the nuts and berries that they could pick off the trees and bushes. They were called hunter-gatherers. They generally travelled around rather than living in permanent settlements, spending time along the coasts and near rivers and lakes, where they erected temporary wooden huts with roofs made from rushes or animal skins.

The first known habitation of the area now known as Co. Galway was in around 6000 BC, with artefacts found in the rivers around Galway City seeming to suggest human activity at this time. Galway had many water sources and these early people chose to settle along the coasts, rivers and lakes of the county. Examples of shell middens dating back to around 5000 BC can be found in western coastal regions of Connemara, notably on the Slyne Head peninsula, while the watery depths of Lough Corrib have produced many artefacts, including log boats and Stone Age tools, which can today be traced to prehistoric times.

Lough Corrib (from Sunny Side of Ireland by John O’Mahony).

In around 4000 BC, new ideas arrived from Europe that were to revolutionise life in Galway and its surrounds. This is now known as the Neolithic Age or New Stone Age. Agricultural practices that we now recognise as farming had been practised in Europe for generations and these settlers in the New Stone Age were able to cultivate crops and cereals and raise domesticated animals such as cattle and sheep. This prompted people to give up their nomadic lifestyle and set down roots, giving Galway its first taste of settled communities. At this time, Galway was covered in forestry but large-scale tree felling using primitive stone tools began. These first farmers, despite their lack of technology, built walls, cleared fields and used local materials to build more permanent houses.

Many Neolithic sites can be found in Galway, particularly in west Connemara and on the shores of Lough Corrib. There are also several Neolithic tombs on the sacred hill of Knockma near Tuam. Burial customs were obviously important to the people of the New Stone Age and there are many megalithic tombs in Co. Galway. The area around Lough Sheeauns near Cleggan, in north-west Connemara, shows much evidence of these, while a collapsed megalithic tomb near Menlo, just east of Galway City, is also a prime example. Portal tombs can also be found in Renvyle and Clifden. Fragments from the time, including handmade pottery, have also been discovered and examined by archaeologists. Axe heads, including a well-preserved specimen from Monivea, have been recovered, as have other cutting tools made from porcellanite. Some of these are on display in the National Museum of Ireland, others in Galway City Museum.

THE BRONZE AGE

The Bronze Age, which began in around 2500 BC, was a truly revolutionary period. Irish people had been using copper for generations, and although it was mainly associated with the south of the country, it could also be found underground in Co. Galway. Copper itself was useful but the discovery in south-east Europe that mixing it with tin at high heat made a durable metal called bronze changed the world, this new metal allowing the manufacture of stronger tools and weapons that made farming and the clearing of land far easier. It would take several hundred years before such a practice became commonplace in Ireland, however. This was because there was no tin to speak of on the island and it needed to be imported from countries such as England. The precious metal was used for more than tools, however – the Bronze Age eventually became synonymous with ornamental items and jewellery, and gold lunulas are among the decorative items that have been found in the area around Galway.

During the Bronze Age, houses were made of wattle and daub or wood, and cooking was often done in an open-air pit known as a fulacht fiadh, examples of which can be found in Galway, including at Eyrecourt. Burial practices also changed in the Bronze Age and single burials in pit graves became common, the bodies of wealthier individuals often accompanied by impressive items such as crockery or jewellery. The grave was usually marked by a mound. There are several examples of this type of burial in Co. Galway, particularly around the Cleggan area to the west. Cist graves – small, stone-built, coffin-like boxes used to hold the bodies of the dead – were common too and can be found in several locations between Athenry to Headford. Stone circles and standing stones were also prevalent, the modern belief being that these were settings for important pagan ceremonies and rituals. A well-preserved example of a standing stone can be found at Roscam on Galway Bay and there are several others present throughout Connemara and near Lough Corrib. There are also examples of stone circles, including in the townland of Moanmore West, near Loughrea, and at Commons East near Woodford, the latter of which consists of seven free-standing stones.

THE COMING OF THE CELTS

The Bronze Age in Ireland came to an end in around 500 BC, having lasted about 1,500 years. At this stage, a group of people known as the Celts arrived in Ireland from mainland Europe. They brought with them new skills and talents to further improve the island. The well-preserved body of an adult male from Celtic times was found in 1821 near Castleblakeney in Co. Galway. The boots he was wearing were a good example of the ingenuity of the Celtic race. Portions of the seams remained and indicated an impressive understanding of stitchwork. The Celts’ arrival also coincided with the discovery of a new metal – iron. Iron did not need to be mixed like bronze and was thus easier to obtain. Iron tools were also very strong and durable and before long had replaced bronze tools, marking the beginning of the Iron Age. The Celts were not an entirely peaceful race and iron weapons were also a feature. It is difficult to ascertain how much violence heralded their arrival, but swords and spearheads dating from Celtic times have been discovered in Co. Galway, particularly on the shores of the River Suck, indicating that they did not always come in peace.

By the time of the Celts’ arrival, the people of Galway were living in small communities, often built strategically on hilltops to provide protection. Cows were the main symbol of wealth and land was prized above anything else. Feuding was a reality of life and crannógs, artificial defensive islands in the centre of lakes, were built widely, including at Lough Caimin near Roundstone, Lough Skannive near Carna and Lough Acalla near Kilconnell in east Galway. There were also several in the lake at Loughrea. Other types of forts were built in Ireland for protection and shelter in and before Celtic times. Promontory forts were built on cliffs and jutted out into the sea. Dún Aonghasa on the Aran Islands is one of the finest examples of these in the world. Hillforts were made of stone and built on high land overlooking the surrounding countryside, and there is an excellent example of one of these near Lough na Fooey in Joyce Country, Co. Galway. Ringforts, too, were commonly built and often comprised several houses together in small communities, surrounded by circular stone walls for protection. These are particularly common in the rich farmland landscape in the east of the county and examples can be seen at Woodlawn and New Inn.

Proximity to water sources remained important and the area now home to Galway City, which was an ideal crossing point of the River Corrib, may have had its first major settlement at this time. The Celts were capable fishermen too, and in 1820, James Hardiman stated that:

The town of Gallway was formerly inhabited by colonies, who got their livelyhood by cods & other sea fishes, drying them by the sun. No part of the Irish coast abounds with a greater variety of fish.1

Celts were skilled ironmongers and were able to clear land of trees, build small settlements and grow crops, which they used to make bread and porridge. Some of the techniques in farming introduced at this time were so advanced that they are still used today. The Celts also domesticated many animals, including cows and pigs, and consumed dairy products such as milk, butter and cheese. Their strong iron tools allowed them to experiment with new methods of building houses as well. They brought more advanced methods of thatching their roofs, tying rushes and straw together skilfully to make a roof in such a way that would keep a house warm and dry. The houses were usually made of wood or stone. They also sometimes had a souterrain, an underground passage for storing food or occasionally hiding from enemies. A great example of this can be seen at Ballynastaig stone fort, near Gort, while another has been discovered at Carnmore. They were also skilled craftsmen, as the Turoe Stone, found at Bullaun near Loughrea, attests. It is a granite carved stone with beautiful artwork, the meaning of which has been lost to time but is nevertheless a reminder of Galway’s rich Celtic past.

CHRISTIAN GALWAY

Over the following centuries, the Celts and the original Irish settlers intermarried and became indistinguishable. By the fourth century, however, a new force was on its way to Ireland. Christianity had its origins in the Middle East, slowly spreading to Europe. In AD 381, it became the official religion of the Roman Empire and it spread rapidly throughout the continent thereafter. The Celts had been pagans and had worshipped many gods and goddesses that they believed were in natural objects such as the sea, the sky and the sun. Some of the most revered goddesses, for example, included Morrigan, the Goddess of War; Danu, the Goddess of Power; and Brigit, the Goddess of Fire. The Irish would have been largely unfamiliar with Christianity until several decades into the fifth century. Many people believe that the first missionary to attempt to spread Christianity in Ireland was a bishop named Palladias, but our patron saint, St Patrick, is widely considered to have converted much of the country, even if hard evidence about his life in Ireland is hard to come by.

Kidnapped from his home, possibly in Wales, Patrick worked as a slave minding sheep for several years, possibly in Co. Antrim. After escaping from his captors and training as a bishop, Patrick returned to Ireland in AD 432 to spread Christianity. It is said he used the three leaves of the Shamrock, which grows widely in Ireland, to teach the pagan Irish about the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and succeeded in converting many important chiefs, who in turn urged their people to embrace the new religion. The influence of Christianity would be felt strongly within years of his arrival. Patrick visited Galway on numerous occasions. He is said to have travelled around north Galway speaking to local chieftains and attempting to convert them, and St Patrick’s Bed, an altar where the saint was said to have prayed, is located near Tuam.

St Patrick (from The Most Ancient Lives of Saint Patrick by James O’Leary).

Another important destination for St Patrick was Mám Éan (Maumeen), a hill in the Inagh Valley overlooking Connemara. He is said to have stood atop the mountain and blessed the region. A pattern day on one Sunday each summer to celebrate this event was popular for centuries, but by the twentieth century had dwindled in significance compared to its more famous rival of Croagh Patrick in Co. Mayo. In more recent years, thanks largely to the work of Fr Micheál Mac Gréil and the local community, the pilgrimage is once again thriving and a small chapel and statue dedicated to the saint have been built on the hill. The oldest still extant Christian church in Ireland is reputedly situated at Kiltiernan, Co. Galway. The building survives from the eighth century, but there is evidence of worship even earlier, possibly from the fifth century when Patrick himself walked among us. St Patrick died in AD 461 and was said to have been buried at Downpatrick, Co. Down.

THE LAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS

This coming of Christianity in the fifth century ushered in a golden age for Irish education and the island eventually became known as the Land of Saints and Scholars. Monasteries were constructed all over the country, usually in isolated areas where the monks could live and pray in peace. The monasteries were skilfully built using stone and usually had a round tower, a guest house, a scriptorium, and many other impressive buildings. They were often led by a revered saint and many young monks were schooled in the arts of reading and writing, usually by using the Bible. Beautiful manuscripts were printed on vellum by the young monks, the most famous of which is the Book of Kells. Numerous intact examples of such monasteries can still be seen in Co. Galway, including at Kilmacduagh and Clonfert.

The Aran Islands were also home to one such monastery. Na Oileáin Árainn, as they are called in Irish, are situated off the coast of Galway at the mouth of Galway Bay. They comprise 47 sq km in total and are made up of three islands: Inishmore, Inishmaan and Inisheer. Enda, who had been a soldier and the son of a prince from Ulster, repented from his life of violence and after ordination in Rome chose to go to the windswept western outpost of Inishmore, the largest of the three islands, where he founded what may have been Ireland’s first monastery. The monks in this monastery lived a hard life of work, prayer, fasting and studying scriptures, and several went on to found their own monasteries. It is said that when Enda died, he was buried at the church at Cill Éinne (the Church of Enda) on the island, and there are reputed to be dozens of other saints in the same graveyard, which can be visited to this day.

The Aran Islands (from Ireland’s Ancient Schools and Scholars by John Healy).

Another famous saint who made Galway his home was St Brendan, who founded a monastery at Clonfert in the extreme east of the county in the middle of the sixth century. Born in Co. Kerry in the year AD 484, Brendan is most famed as ‘Brendan the Navigator’, many believing he discovered America centuries before Christopher Columbus. Clonfert was renowned for the learning that occurred there and it thrived for centuries. Like many monasteries, however, a Viking raid would eventually bring it to its knees and it was burned down on at least three occasions. St Brendan is said to be buried in the churchyard adjoining the cathedral.

Kilmacduagh is another famous monastery in Galway. Its name comes from the Irish Cill Mhic Dhuach, meaning ‘Church of Colman mac Duagh’. It is exceptionally well preserved to this day and is situated on the outskirts of the limestone landscape of the Burren, a region synonymous with Co. Clare but which has a small section inside the Galway border. Founded in the seventh century by St Colman, Kilmacduagh was a hugely important site by 1100. Like all monasteries, it eventually declined in importance when the Irish Church came under the banner of the Church of Rome, but a pattern fair celebrating St Colman was popular at Kilmacduagh for centuries. Other saints synonymous with Galway include St MacDara of Carna, St Grellan of Ballinasloe, St Caillín of Ballyconneely and St Fursey of Inchiquin Island. St Jarlath was also an important saint, founding the town of Tuam in the sixth century after his chariot broke its wheel there and he took it as a sign from God that this was the place he should make his home. Tuam went on to become Galway’s most important centre of population for centuries.

MYTHOLOGICAL GALWAY

Galway is also associated with many legends of pre-Christian origin. There is even a mythological theory as to how Galway got its name, concerning a woman, Gaillimh Iníon Breasail, daughter of a local chieftain, who was said to have drowned in the Rover Corrib but whose existence is uncertain. Hy-Brasil, a strange and mysterious land, was said to be located in the sea off the county’s coast. It was believed that it appeared every seven years and it was even recorded on several maps in medieval times. Irish heroes of mythology, including Fionn Mac Cumhaill, are also said to have spent time in Galway. One story tells of how the warrior was hunting in the Twelve Bens mountains when he spotted a deer. Not knowing it was his mortal enemy who had turned himself into an animal, Fionn and his hound chased the deer to a dark valley near Duchrú Mountain, where the deer jumped over a precipice into the middle of a lake. The hound, believing his prey to be escaping, also took a desperate jump but was dashed on the rocks below. Meanwhile, the deer reached the other bank and made his escape up the mountainside. The foul deed did not benefit this evil-minded man, however, as shortly afterwards he was killed in a battle against Fionn and his men. There remains a townland in the Kylemore area named Lemnaheltia to this day. It comes from the Irish Léim na hÉilte, translating as ‘the leap of the doe’.

Fionn Mac Cumhaill (from The High Deeds of Finn by T.W. Rolleston).

Many other stories of folklore are concerned with Connemara. Fionn was also said to have slain a terrible beast at the mouth of Killary Harbour that had come to kill him and the rest of his band of knights. Even Connemara’s name comes from an Irish legend, Conmaicne Mara (Conmac of the Sea). He was a mysterious figure who may have been the son of the legendary Queen Maeve of Connacht. Queen Maeve herself was said by some sources to be buried at Knockma Hill, 8km west of Tuam, although other sources believe she is buried at Knocknarea in Co. Sligo. Knockma Hill was also said to be the place where Finvarra, the King of the Fairies of Connacht, regularly held his court. The Tuath Dé Dannan, a supernatural race that resided in the ‘Otherworld’ but that were also able to interact with those living in the ‘Real World’, were also said to have visited Galway on occasion, their fearsome leader Orbsen (also known as Manannán mac Lir) reputedly dying in battle in Moycullen and giving his name to nearby Lough Corrib. The Slieve Aughty Mountains are said to take their name from Echtge, a relative of Finde of the Tuatha Dé Danann. There are also several places in Galway named Leaba Diarmaid agus Grainne (Diarmaid and Gráinne’s bed) for the couple from Irish mythology who ran around the country attempting to escape Gráinne’s spurned lover.

1 Hardiman, J. (1820), The History of the Town and County of the Town of Galway, p.5.

2

THE VIKINGS, THE NORMANS AND THE TRIBES OF GALWAY

THE VIKINGS

By the ninth century, Galway was divided into several Gaelic tuaths