Orkney E-Book

Caroline Wickham-Jones

• Herausgeber: Birlinn
• Kategorie: Sachliteratur, Reportagen, Biografien
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Seitenzahl: 322

Beschreibung

Orkney lies only 20 miles north of mainland Scotland, yet for many centuries its culture was more Scandanavian than Scottish. Strong westerly winds account for the scarcity of trees on Orkney and also for the tradition of well-constructed stone structures. As a result, the islands boast a large number of exceptionally well-preserved remains, which help us to form a detailed picture of Orcadian life through the ages. Sites and remains to be explored include settlements from the Stone Age, stone circles and burials from the Bronze Age, Iron Age brochs, Viking castles, the magnificent cathedral of St Magnus in Kirkwall, Renaissance palaces, a Martello tower from the Napoleonic Wars and numerous remains from the Second World War. In this updated edition of her best-selling book, Caroline Wickham-Jones, who has worked extensively on Orcadian sites for many years, introduces the history of the islands and provides a detailed survey of the principal places and sites of historic interest.

Leseprobe

Orkney

ORKNEY ISLANDS

For Guille, who has been with me throughout the writing of this book

This eBook edition published in 2013 by Birlinn Limited West Newington House Newington Road Edinburgh EH9 1QSwww.birlinn.co.uk

First published in 1998 by Birlinn Limited, revised edition published in 2011

Copyright © Caroline Wickham-Jones 1998, 2007, 2011 and 2013

The moral right of Caroline Wickham-Jones to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form without the express written permission of the publisher.

eBook ISBN: 978-0-85790-591-8 Print ISBN: 978-1-78027-001-2

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

CONTENTS

List of Illustrations

List of Plates

List of Maps

Acknowledgements

Useful Addresses

Preface

Visiting the Sites

Introduction

The Natural Background

The First Settlers: Mesolithic Orkney

Early Farmers: Neolithic Orkney

The First Metalworkers: Bronze Age Orkney

Fighting Farmers: Iron Age Orkney

The Coming of the Missionaries: Pictish Orkney

Foreign Settlers: the Norse in Orkney

Transfer to Scotland: Scottish Earls in Orkney

The Improving Years: Orkney in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

War and Peace: Orkney in the Twentieth Century

New Light on Ancient Orkney: archaeological discoveries in the early twenty-first century

Museums

Further Reading

Index

Rubbing from Maeshowe

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Rubbing from Maeshowe (The Orkneyinga Saga)

1. Vinquoy (RCAHMS)

2. The Neolithic farmstead at Knap of Howar (RCAHMS)

3. Skara Brae (RCAHMS)

4. Excavation plan of the Stones of Stenness (RCAHMS)

5. The Ring of Brodgar, from the Rev Barry’s History, published in 1805

6. Maeshowe (Davidson & Henshall)

7. Isbister (Davidson & Henshall)

8. Nineteenth-century drawings of Maeshowe (The Orkneyinga Saga)

9. Ring of Brodgar (RCAHMS)

10. Inside Maeshowe in the nineteenth century (The Orkneyinga Saga)

11. Unstan (Davidson & Henshall)

12. Cuween (Davidson & Henshall)

13. Wideford Hill (Davidson & Henshall)

14. A plan of the tomb at Quanterness, published in the Rev Barry’s History, 1805

15. Dwarfie Stane (Davidson & Henshall)

16. Blackhammer (Davidson & Henshall)

17. Knowe of Yarsoe (Davidson & Henshall)

18. Quoyness (Davidson & Henshall)

19. Holm of Papa Westray South (Davidson & Henshall)

20. Holm of Papa Westray North (Davidson & Henshall)

21. The broch of Gurness (RCAHMS)

22. The souterrain at Grain (RCAHMS)

23. The broch of Borwick (RCAHMS)

24. Plan of the broch of Midhowe (© Orkney Islands Council)

25. The broch of Burroughston (RCAHMS)

26. The souterrain at Rennibister (RCAHMS)

27. Pictish building built over earlier remains outside the broch of Gurness (RCAHMS)

28. A nineteenth-century view of the Brough of Deerness (MacGibbon & Ross)

29. A view of the remains in Eynhallow in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

30. St Magnus Cathedral, an architectural detail from the interior: the doorway in the south transept drawn in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

31. St Magnus Cathedral, the south aisle of the nave in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

32. Elevations of the church at Orphir, drawn in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

33. Some of the Norse runes carved inside Maeshowe (RCAHMS)

34. St Magnus Cathedral, section drawn in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

35. View of St Magnus Cathedral in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

36. Kirkwall: the Bishop’s Palace and St Magnus Cathedral in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

37. Elevation of the chapel in Birsay, drawn in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

38. Plan of the chapel and buildings on the Brough of Deerness (RCAHMS)

39. The church at Skaill in Deerness, drawn by Low in 1774

40. Remains of the Norse church at Orphir (RCAHMS)

41. The chapel at Westness in Rousay in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

42. Eynhallow Church in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

43. Cubbie Roo’s Castle (RCAHMS)

44. Nineteenth-century drawings of the church in Egilsay (MacGibbon & Ross)

45. A view of the church in Egilsay in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross)

46. A nineteenth-century view of the Earl’s Palace at Birsay with the church in the background (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

47. The exterior of Noltland Castle in the nineteenth century, showing the numerous gun loops (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

48. Tankerness House, Kirkwall, in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

49. The Bishop’s Palace at Kirkwall, from the Rev Barry’s History, published in 1805

50. The Earl’s Palace, Kirkwall, in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

51. The Earl’s Palace, Kirkwall, a detail of the main entrance drawn in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

52. Nineteenth-century plans of Tankerness House, Kirkwall (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

53. Tankerness House, Kirkwall: detail of the inscription over the main entrance drawn in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

54a. The Earl’s Palace at Birsay, from the Rev Barry’s History, published in 1805

54b. Detailed seventeenth-century plan of the Palace in its heyday (The Stationery Office)

55. The Earl’s Palace, Birsay (RCAHMS)

56. The porch and doorway into Breckness House, drawn in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

57. Carrick House in Eday, a nineteenth-century view and detail of the carved stone over the entrance (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

58. Nineteenth-century plans of Noltland Castle (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

59. Noltland Castle, from the Rev Barry’s History, published in 1805

60. The main stair and carved newel post of Noltland Castle in the nineteenth century (MacGibbon & Ross ii)

61. Kirkwall in the early nineteenth century (Barry)

62. Mossetter farmstead (RCAHMS)

63. Corrigall farmstead (RCAHMS)

64. A click mill, drawn by Low in 1774

All illustrations credited RCAHMS are Crown Copyright: Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland.

All illustrations credited Davidson & Henshall are by kind permission of J. L. Davidson and A. S. Henshall, The Chambered Cairns of Orkney (Edinburgh University Press 1989).

All illustrations credited MacGibbon & Ross are taken from David MacGibbon and Thomas Ross, The Ecclesiastical Architecture of Scotland (facsimile edition The Mercat Press 1991).

All illustrations credited MacGibbon & Ross ii are taken from David MacGibbon and Thomas Ross, The Castellated and Domestic Architecture of Scotland (The Mercat Press).

LIST OF PLATES

1. Sea stack and cliffs at Yesnaby.

2. Part of the Neolithic farmstead at Knap of Howar.

3. One of the Skara Brae houses with Skaill House in the background.

4. House interior at Skara Brae.

5. Stone circle at Brodgar.

6. One of the standing stones at Brodgar.

7. The Dwarfie Stane in Hoy.

8. Interior of the chambered tomb at Taversoe Tuick, Rousay.

9. Burnt Mound and Bronze Age structure at Liddle Farm, South Ronaldsay.

10. The broch at Gurness with surrounding structures.

11. Entrance way to the broch at Gurness.

12. Chapel and remains at Deerness.

13. An early view of the Neolithic remains in the Maeshowe area.

14. The Farm Museum at Kirbister.

15. Detail of the Farm Museum at Corrigall.

16. St Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall.

17. Churchill barrier with sunken blockship.

18. Statue of St George outside the Italian Chapel.

19. The Italian Chapel in Lamb Holm.

20. Excavations in the circular structure at Mine Howe.

21. Excavations in the ditch at Mine Howe.

LIST OF MAPS

Orkney Islands

Sites where Mesolithic flint tools have been discovered

The Chambered Tombs and Settlement Sites of Neolithic Orkney

The main find spots of Bronze Age material in Orkney

The main find spots of Iron Age material in Orkney

Some well-known Norse sites in Orkney

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have helped with the writing of this book. First and foremost I should like to thank all those people in Orkney who, over many years, have provided facilities, advice, friendship and encouragement for my various trips, whether I was working for others, carrying out my own research, or on holiday. A great debt is owed to Ann Brundle and Daphne Lorimer in particular – they have always been most welcoming and helpful, and took on the mega-task of reading through, and commenting on, a version of the completed text. Sally Foster was also very helpful in reading and advising on various chapters, and Heather James of Glasgow University Archaeological Research Division advised over the excavations at Skaill House. All of these people have helped to straighten out various misconceptions, errors and omissions as well as tightening and considerably improving the final message. The staff of the National Monuments Record of Scotland in Edinburgh, in particular Iain Fraser, were very helpful in my quest for plans and should be thanked for all their time and advice. The Planning Department in Kirkwall helped with missing site references. Needless to say, any errors that remain are the fault of the author.

Finally, my grandmother, though she died long before I was born, introduced me to Orkney by collecting postcards when she was stationed there in the First World War. The collection was a source of fascination during my childhood and I have it by me still.

Illustrations

Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and we apologise in advance for any unintentional omissions. We would be pleased to insert the appropriate acknowledgment in any subsequent edition of this publication.

Useful Addresses

The following organisations and individuals will be able to provide further information on any aspects of archaeology and history, in Orkney or beyond.

Council for Scottish Archaeology

Causewayside House, 160 Causewayside, Edinburgh EH9 1PR

Tel: [phone]

www.scottisharchaeology.org.uk

Friends of Orkney Archaeological Trust

PO Box 6213, Kirkwall KW15 1YD

www.orkneycommunities.co.uk/FOAT/index.asp

Historic Scotland

Longmore House, Salisbury Place, Edinburgh EH9 1SH

Tel: [phone]

www.historic-scotland.gov.uk

Island Archaeologist

Archaeology Unit, Orkney College, Kirkwall KW15 1DH

The Orkney Museum

Tankerness House, Broad Street, Kirkwall KW15 1DH

www.orkney.org/museums.tankhouse.htm

Kirkwall Tourist Information Centre

6 Broad Street, Kirkwall KW15 1NX

Tel: [phone]

www.visitorkney.com

Orkney Heritage Society

c/o The Orkney Museum (see above)

Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS)

John Sinclair House, 16 Bernard Terrace, Edinburgh EH8 9NX

Tel: [phone]

www.rcahms.gov.uk

Stromness Tourist Information Centre

Ferry Terminal Building, The Pier Head, Stromness,

Orkney KW16 3BH

Tel: [phone]

www.visitorkney.com

PREFACE

This book is designed to provide information for those who visit Orkney and would like to know more about its history and how the developments of the past are reflected by the monuments that survive today. As I do not believe that archaeology ever stops (we are now creating the archaeological sites of tomorrow), I have tried to bring it reasonably up-to-date, and this, the third edition, includes a new final chapter to outline the considerable amount of research that has gone on in Orkney since the book was first published in 1998.

In the space available it is not possible to provide more than a gloss of Orkney’s fascinating history, but there is a reading list at the end for those who would like to follow up particular themes in more detail. In addition, Historic Scotland, Orkney Islands Council, and others regularly bring out information leaflets and short publications on particular sites and periods and these are generally available in the islands and from centralised information centres. Regular visitors to Orkney will also find a visit to the Orkney Room in Kirkwall Library very rewarding.

Readers will note that distribution maps have not been provided for every chapter in the book. This is for two reasons: because of the difficulty of portraying the wealth of archaeological sites in Orkney; and because of the inherent weaknesses of a distribution map when used to show the density of sites. Orkney is full of archaeological sites, many of which have not been securely dated. For some periods, such as the Neolithic, the map would be so dense that it would be difficult to make sense of, while for other periods it might appear very sparse. This is more a reflection of the problems of identifying sites to particular periods rather than of the lack of human activity in any one period. In order to be complete, any series of archaeological distribution maps of Orkney would really also need one of the known but undated sites, in order to balance the picture, and this would be a dense map indeed!

Furthermore, distribution maps are more a reflection of the current progress and locations of archaeological work rather than of the sites of known settlement or burial in the past. The amount of on-going archaeological work in Orkney means that distribution maps go out of date very quickly as new sites are discovered. Every year there is survey and excavation work that uncovers new information from all periods, and it only takes the arrival of an archaeological team to work on a previously un-investigated island in order to alter the picture dramatically. Readers should remember this when studying the maps that are presented

VISITING THE SITES

The sites chosen for inclusion in the gazetteer have been selected on the basis that they are reasonably easy of access and provide something interesting to see. Many are open to the public, mainly through the agencies of Historic Scotland (HS), and Orkney Islands Council (OIC), but others remain in private hands and many may still be lived in. Visitors should therefore respect the privacy of those who live in, or use, certain sites. Don’t assume that you are free to prowl around or photograph every old house – no matter how interesting it is!

There are, of course, a multitude of sites from all periods across Orkney. Many are marked on Ordnance Survey maps, though this does not necessarily mean that they are easy to find, or recognise and understand once you get there. Others are recorded in specialist archaeological and historical literature, and more are found every year. The Orkney Island Archaeologist and Tankerness House Museum in Kirkwall provide invaluable sources of information about Orkney’s archaeological and historical record (addresses are given on this xiv).

If you are particularly keen to visit a certain property or site, Orkney Tourist Board in Kirkwall, will be able to advise you whether or not it is open. They will also be able to provide information on ferry times and travel arrangements to those islands not served by a regular boat. In addition, new sites are frequently added to the list of monuments with public access, and new trails are laid out for those with an interest in the heritage. The Tourist Office will be able to let you know of any recent additions and provide relevant information. Large groups should always be notified in advance to the correct authority.

Most sites are within easy reach of the road or a footpath. If you have to cross farmland, or open countryside, it is important to follow the Countryside Code (see page xx). In addition, the weather in Orkney can be both unpredictable and extreme: if you are going to be doing some outside exploring it is advisable to take both warm and waterproof clothing (the wind is often the worst problem), as well as sun cream (the northern latitude means that sunlight is fierce). A torch is useful, especially for the chambered tombs, but also for many of the other sites.

FIGURE 1 Vinquoy

When you reach a site it is important to treat it with respect, whether it is in state, local, or private ownership, and whether it has been formally consolidated and laid out or not. Stone-work should not be disturbed, and nothing should ever be removed from an archaeological or historic site. Very occasionally, a visitor may see something new that appears to be of archaeological interest: finds should be left in place and reported to the Island Archaeologist or Tankerness House Museum as soon as possible. In Scotland, the law of Treasure Trove demands that any archaeological or historic find (of whatever age or material), be reported to the proper authorities who will decide on the appropriate course of action. The value of an archaeological find depends very much on the possibility for a proper examination of its find-spot by a professional archaeologist, and the bodies noted above will be happy to advise on this.

In Orkney, the Island Archaeologist has up-to-date information on all known monuments, and may be consulted if you wish to know more about a specific location, or think you have found a new site. In addition, the National Monuments Record at the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS) in Edinburgh has detailed information for all known sites across Scotland, including Orkney. Through RCAHMS a series of archaeological lists and guides is published and these are invaluable sources of information for anyone with an interest in exploring the past.

If this sounds a little daunting, it is not intended to be so. Unfortunately, people have not always respected the remains of the past, but our enjoyment of them, and our children’s enjoyment of them, is dependent on all who visit a site: they should leave it as they found it for the generations who follow. Rather than being off-putting, I hope that this book will help to encourage people to go out and discover the wealth of historical interest that lies around us.

The map sheets to use while exploring Orkney are Ordnance Survey Landranger series sheets 5, 6 and 7.

The Orkney Countryside Code

Please always use stiles and gates to cross fences and walls. Always close gates after you.

Always ask permission before entering agricultural land.

Please keep to paths, and take particular care to avoid fields of grass and other crops.

Do not disturb livestock. In particular cows with calves can be dangerous. Always keep your dog under control, preferably on a lead, and obey ‘no dogs’ signs.

Please take your litter away with you, and do not light fires.

Please do not pollute water courses or supplies.

Never disturb nesting birds, and if you do accidentally, please leave the vicinity immediately as there are predators about!

Do not pick wild flowers, or dig up plants.

Please drive with due care and attention – Orkney is a busy place, and not everyone wants to go at 10 mph!

Please exercise consideration when parking – do not obstruct driveways, field access, or side roads. Please park off main roads and do not leave your vehicle where it might cause danger to others.

Always take care near cliffs – particularly with children – cliff edges can be crumbly, slidey and dangerous, especially in bad weather.

Walkers should take adequate clothes, and wear suitable footwear as well as telling someone of their plans.

Above all please respect the life of the countryside.

from Tait, C., The Orkney Guide Book

INTRODUCTION

Orkney comprises a group of some sixty-seven islands lying off the north coast of Scotland. Today they are easy to reach, by car, train, ferry and plane, though the journey can be long and expensive and some southerners tend to think of them as lying at the edge of ‘civilisation’. This was also true in the past: in 1883 John Tudor wrote of their apparent geographical isolation in his guidebook to the islands; and even further back, about 330 BC, the Greek traveller Pytheas of Marseilles claimed that from Orkney one could see the edge of the world.

Nevertheless, throughout the ages, Orkney has also lain at the heart of things: for the Norse earls and seafarers who left their Norwegian homeland to settle there, Orkney was a central base from which they could voyage and trade with both the Hebrides and Ireland as well as keeping up with events in Scandinavia and farther afield in Europe. Similarly, for those who live in Orkney today, there is little sense of isolation or lack of facilities.

We do not know how Orkney’s first settlers viewed their island home, but we do know that Orkney has been inhabited for nigh on 10,000 years. For much of that time the sea has provided the main highway and viewed in this light the waters round Orkney, though treacherous, are also inviting. Rather like a six-lane motorway today, you have to know what you are doing, but the northern seas could lead you directly to your destination and provide varied benefits in the form of sheltered harbours and plentiful supplies.

Any visitor to Orkney today will quickly realise that the modern image of a peaceful cultural backwater has to be dispelled. The islands are certainly peaceful, but agriculture and commerce prosper, and there is industry: from oil processing to whisky distilling, as well as a thriving cultural life and a rich heritage of archaeological remains and natural sites. All of these things combine to form ‘the Orkney Experience’.

This ‘experience’ is quite unique; it is formed from a subtle mix of past events and present conditions. Countless generations of past Orcadians and their visitors have combined to leave their mark on both land and society and it is this contribution that is considered in this guide. It has been said that the key to the present lies through an understanding of the past and it is hoped that those who use this guide will find that it not only provides information on some of the wonderful archaeological and historic monuments that may be visited in Orkney, but also helps to explain them and their contribution to the islands today.

THE NATURAL BACKGROUND

Although people are influential in shaping the land, the land is also influential in shaping people, and this is nowhere more important than Orkney where particular features such as the easily shaped stone and the low-lying fertile soils have played a vital role over the millennia. It is therefore necessary to understand a little of the natural history of the islands before we launch into their human history.

Geology and Geomorphology

Most of Orkney is formed of sandstone, laid down in the sea about 380 million years ago. These sandstones differ slightly in type and colour, but collectively they are known as the Old Red Sandstones. They are not particularly hard rocks, and generally split easily into regular slabs, known as flagstones. One curious feature of the sandstones is that in many places they contain large numbers of fossilised fish.

In a few areas, notably round Stromness, remnants of the preceding rocks may be found. These comprise mainly granites and gneisses and geologists suggest that they formed a range of small hilly islands before they were buried by the sediments that would become the sandstones.

Finally, in the island of Hoy there is evidence for volcanic activity that is more recent than the sandstones. There are lava flows in five places in Hoy, though geologists are uncertain whether these are remnants of one large flow or several smaller events. The most famous lava outcrop is at the Old Man of Hoy, where a sandstone stack sits on a hard base of lava that has resisted erosion by the sea.

More recently, though still in the far off past to humans, the rocks of Orkney have been shaped by the pressure of ice that passed over them during the Ice Age. The last onslaught of ice only disappeared some 10,000 years ago, though this was only the most recent of a series of glaciations stretching back many thousands of years. Orkney would have been covered by many metres of ice and it had a severe effect on the landscape. First of all, as the ice gradually moved across the countryside, it scraped and scoured the land to erode away the surface. Secondly, as it finally slowed down and melted, the scraped-up stones, gravel and soils were dropped to form deposits known as boulder clay, or till.

Thus the landscape has been both reduced and enhanced by the glaciers. Across most of Orkney, it is the till deposits that are most obvious – in some places they are many metres thick and include stones moved by the ice from several miles away. In other places, particularly on the higher hills of Hoy, bare surfaces of scraped rock and steep U-shaped valleys show where the glaciers scoured things out as they passed.

Since the Ice Age, erosion has not, of course, stopped. It is continued in the work of the wind, rain and sea. Of these the sea is perhaps the most active, and in some places severe winter storms cut back the coastline by as much as a few metres every decade. The coasts of Orkney have changed dramatically over the last 10,000 years, but this is also due to a delayed effect of the ice.

During the Ice Age sea levels fell as water was drawn up into the great glaciers that covered the land. At the same time, the land itself sank as it was pressed down by the weight of ice. The net result in Orkney is calculated to have been a drop of more than 30 metres in sea level at the height of the glaciation 15,000 years ago. After the ice melted, water was released back into the oceans, but the land also rose, relieved of the great pressure. As a result sea levels first rose and then fell again and this is a process that is still taking place today, albeit in a less dramatic fashion.

Orkney, therefore, has not always had the familiar outline of today. The first settlers after the Ice Age would have seen rather larger land masses, of which today’s islands are only the inland hills. This has obvious implications when we are looking for early sites: much of the land, and the sites which stood on it, has now disappeared. Even during the Neolithic period, some 5,000 years ago, there was more land as many of the shallow straits between islands seem to have been dry land. Gradually the islands have assumed their present shape, but it is clear that even this is not stable. What sort of land will the inhabitants of the future know?

The geology of Orkney may seem comparatively simple, but it has left a rich legacy for her settlers. Various minerals occur throughout the islands, and have been worked at different times in the past. These include copper, lead and iron ore. Today, the controversy over the extraction of uranium from south-west Mainland crops up from time to time. Less controversial, but equally contemporary, the exploitation of petroleum from the near-by North Sea bed has had a major impact on recent Orcadian culture.

In addition to the mineral wealth, the more common rocks have also helped to shape the past. The sandstone flags split naturally into regular rectangular blocks that make for easy building. Over the millennia, this has been a particular boon to a region without timber for its houses. The Neolithic farmers were skilled builders in dry-stone flags, using them for both houses and tombs, as well as for many of the furnishings that would have been made of wood elsewhere in Britain. Later on the flagstones were also important for both grand and humble dwellings. Invariably, it is the grander buildings that tend to survive through history, but Orkney has a rich architectural heritage that includes a variety of structures, all of which are well worth exploring.

Landscape and Settlement

To the untutored eye the Orcadian landscape may appear bland. Gentle hills clad with moorland rise above lowland fields. Trees are noticeable only by their absence. But to see only this image is to miss the point: the many riches and subtleties of the topography and colouring.

The island coastline provides a dramatic variety of vista, from some of Britain’s highest sea cliffs at St John’s Head in Hoy – over 330 metres high, to sweeping sandy bays. There are grassy spits, barely linking one rocky headland to another, and deep sea geos, wave-filled cuts into the rocky cliff line. Inland low green farmlands extend, broken by stretches of clear blue water from Orkney’s many lochs, both fresh and salt. There are still occasional patches of poorly drained marshland, and above this rise the heather-clad hills, perhaps more majestic for the very roundedness of the terrain. This is not all, however, for in Orkney, as nowhere else, the sky must also be counted into the order of things. Thus there is forever a changing backdrop which, whether cloudscape or blue, day or night, adds a dimension usually unnoticed elsewhere.

The islands are accessible and fertile. Transport, both by land and water, is not difficult. There are sheltered bays and harbours to provide a safe anchorage, and clear (if not always well-made) routes over land.

This has been important: it meant, for example, that settlement could spread out. Though islands that once held people are now abandoned, and the density and spread of population has certainly changed, for much of the past it is likely that the general pattern of settlement was not much different to that of today. Small gatherings of dwellings, hardly to be judged as villages by modern standards, lay amid a spread of individual, but not isolated, steadings that might, at various times, reach more, or less, into the hills. Dominating all, the towns: today the burgh of Kirkwall to the east is the county town, while Stromness to the west has lost some of its past trading glory, but it still remains as an important link to the outside world. In between lies Finstown, though Finstown started life relatively recently as a watering hole (more exactly a pub) at one of Orkney’s major crossroads.

With people came names. The placenames of Orkney provide a strong reflection of its past, though with each successive overlay the earlier picture becomes more and more faint. Thus, though there is a rich pattern of Norse names, we do not know how the early farmers referred to their settlements at Skara Brae nor Barnhouse, nor to the monuments that they raised at Maeshowe and Brodgar. Similarly, the original names have been forgotten for the great broch towers raised in the Iron Age at Gurness and Midhowe. Hints of prehistoric names may indeed be lurking in some nomenclature, but so far they have not been traced.

The name ‘Orkney’ itself has been traced to the Picts. It was in use by c.AD 561, when Saint Colomba was concerned for the safety of his missionaries who were working in the north. The old Irish historians referred to the islands as Insi Orc, meaning ‘the islands of the tribe of the wild boar’. The boar was a well-recognised Pictish totem, and the name was well enough established to be translated and used in Latin, and later on in Norse. In contrast to this antiquity, the name of the main island, ‘Mainland’, seems surprisingly modern. It stretches back at least to Norse times, however, when it appeared as Meginland, ‘main island’, but other names have also been used. Another Norse name for Mainland Orkney was Hrossey, ‘island of horses’, and it is sometimes referred to as Pomona though Marwick (in Orkney Farm Names) has shown that this last name derives from a misreading of a medieval manuscript which was actually noting the fertility of the land.

Pictish names are scarce in the islands, but there is a web of Norse names and these provide a rich source of information. They give detail on how the land was settled and used, on important landmarks for sea-going craft, on local administration systems and taxes, and on the people as they went about their daily business. Placename study is a detailed and a serious topic, and this book is not the place for an academic discussion of all the placenames of Orkney, but it is an interesting topic and there are good works of reference on the subject (e.g. Marwick, H., Orkney Farm Names and Nicolaisen, W. F. H., Scottish Place-names). Individual locations of interest are noted in the various chapters.

Vegetation and Climate

Orkney has been farmed for at least 5,000 years, and the present land cover owes much to human interference. Nevertheless, there are still many areas where a more ‘natural’ vegetation thrives. The coastlands include both herb-rich cliff tops, with a spectacular cover of sea-pinks in early summer, and low-lying lagoons interspersed with rocky shore-lands. Inland, there are poorly drained marshlands, lowland heaths and intensively tended agricultural lands, both arable and pasture. Higher up lie heather-covered moorlands, though only a few places are high, or exposed, enough for more specialised mountain flora to flourish. Peat is widespread, though it did not begin to form until about 3,000 years ago, long after the first settlers arrived, and since that time it has been extensively harvested.

Not surprisingly, with such a variety of habitat Orkney has a diverse vegetation. Woodlands are rare, and with one exception (at Berriedale in Hoy) they have been planted in fairly recent times, but there is increasing evidence that this was not always the case. Research on ancient plant remains found in peat bogs indicates that trees were once more extensive, though the woodland was probably relatively scrub-like and it seems that it was dwindling even by the time the first farmers arrived. It is likely that the loss of the woodlands may be explained partly by natural causes, such as a hostile climate, and partly by human interference, as the land was cleared for fields and grazings. Woodland plants tend, therefore, to be missing, but nevertheless the list of Orkney flora is still rich and contains many interesting species (see Berry, R. J., The Natural History of Orkney and Bullard, E., Wildflowers in Orkney). It even boasts one particularly special plant: primula scotica, the Scottish primrose, which occurs only in the northernmost parts of Scotland and Orkney.

The vegetation is the product of a combination of many factors: the underlying geology and soils; and human interference are but two of them. Climate is also important. This has been constantly changing since the end of the Ice Age, but it is likely that some factors have remained fairly constant. Wind, for example, is always influential in Orkney, and has played a factor in the present lack of trees. The casual visitor may feel that there is never any shelter from the gale, and indeed high winds do occur throughout the year. Rainfall is not unduly high, however (varying between 1,500 mm average in Hoy and 900 mm in east Mainland), and winters are relatively mild (average 4°C), though summers are rarely very hot (average 12°C). Snow does not generally last long, but summer fogs are frequent. Due to its northern latitude Orkney experiences long summer days when the sun barely sinks below the horizon, but in the winter there is little more than 6 hours daylight. The growth season in Orkney (when the temperature rises above 6°C), lasts between 5 and 6 months.

Wildlife

The animals of Orkney are interesting, partly because many that are common in the Scottish mainland are lacking. Foxes and badgers, for example, are not to be found, while hedgehogs and brown hares have both been introduced: the hedgehog in this century; the hare in the last. Rabbits are common, and must have been introduced long ago; both sheep and cattle were introduced by the first farmers 5,000 years ago. One particular breed of sheep is of especial interest: the North Ronaldsay sheep which are particularly small and live almost entirely from seaweed. In North Ronaldsay itself they are kept from the island fields by a circular wall which confines them to the foreshore.

Natural species include both otter and seal, as well as a variety of small land mammals. Mice and rats are common, as well as pygmy shrews, but the animal of interest here is the Orkney vole. Orkney voles are a distinct species of vole, quite different to voles in the British mainland, and seem to have been introduced long back, perhaps by the early farmers (see Berry, R. J., The Natural History of Orkney, p. 127).

The lack of large predators has not only allowed small mammals to flourish, it has also assisted the bird population. Orkney is well known for its abundant and interesting bird-life and it is not possible to go into great detail of this here. The sea birds are perhaps most obvious to the casual visitor, from aggressive arctic skuas and terns to the colourful, friendly puffins. The varied coastline provides an ideal home for many different species which can be observed with ease. Inland, the farmlands and freshwater lochs provide their own habitats for a wide range of species, including curlews and divers, while other species tend to stick to the moorland areas. Finally, encouraged perhaps by the abundance of small mammals as food, there are birds of prey such as golden eagle and hen harrier, as well as kestrel and short-eared owl.

Wildlife is not only confined to the land and air – both marine and freshwater animals are also important. The seas around Orkney are rich in fish and shellfish, and have provided an ideal habitat for various fish farms in recent years. On land the freshwater lochs are well known for brown trout, but they and the rivers also provide a home to a variety of invertebrates, including leeches, as well as other fish.

SITES WHERE MESOLITHIC FLINT TOOLS HAVE BEEN DISCOVERED

THE FIRST SETTLERS: MESOLITHIC ORKNEY