Yesterday We Were in America E-Book

Brendan Lynch

• Herausgeber: The History Press
• Kategorie: Sachliteratur, Reportagen, Biografien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 417

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019

Beschreibung

On 14 June 1919 – eight years before Charles Lindbergh's flight across the Atlantic – two men from Manchester took off in an open-cockpit Vickers Vimy and flew into the history books. They battled through a sixteen-hour journey of snow, ice and continuous cloud, with a non-functioning wireless and a damaged exhaust that made it impossible to hear each other. And then, just five hours away from Ireland and high above the sea, the Vimy stalled. Yesterday We Were in America is the incredible story of John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown, and how they gave hope to a post-war world that was in grave need of it.

Leseprobe

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

Green Dust: Ireland’s Unique Motor Racing History

Triumph of the Red Devil: The Irish Gordon Bennett Cup Race 1903

There Might be a Drop of Rain Yet: A Memoir

Parsons Bookshop: At the Heart of Bohemian Dublin, 1949–1989

Prodigals and Geniuses: The Writers and Artists of Dublin’s Baggotonia

City of Writers: The Lives and Homes of Dublin Authors

Princess of the Orient: A Romantic Odyssey

www.brendanlynchbooks.com

To the irrepressible Margie.

And to the memory of Alcock and Brownand all the brave aviation pioneers.

Man must rise above the Earth – to the top of the atmosphere and beyond – for only thus will he fully understand the world in which he lives.

Socrates

Cover Illustrations:Front: The Vimy takes off, next stop Europe. (Author’s Collection) Back: A monument on Ballinaboy Hill points to the Vimy’s 1919 landing site. (Smb1001 via WikimediaCommons)

First published in 2012 by Haynes Publishing

This edition published 2019

The History Press

The Mill, Brimscombe Port

Stroud, Gloucestershire, GL5 2QG

www.thehistorypress.co.uk

© Brendan Lynch 2012, 2019

The right of Brendan Lynch to be identified as the Author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the Publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 0 7509 9109 4

Typesetting and origination by The History Press

Printed in Turkey by Imak

eBook converted by Geethik Technologies

CONTENTS

Foreword to Previous Edition by Len Deighton

Foreword to new edition by Group Captain A.J.H. Alcock, MBE, RAF, nephew of John Alcock

Alcock and Brown – Rare Aviators by Steve Fossett

Acknowledgements

Map of Route

Introduction to Previous Edition

Introduction to Centenary Edition

1     Free of the Prison of Gravity

2     The Apprenticeship of John Alcock

3     Alcock Meets Brown

4     Construction of the Atlantic Vimy

5     All Roads Lead to Newfoundland

6     Final Four Atlantic Contestants

7     Hawker and Grieve Survive Ditching

8     The Vimy’s Final Preparations

9     Dramatic Take-Off

10     The Vimy Loses Radio and Exhaust

11     Nothing but Cloud

12     Surviving a Stall

13     A Boggy Landing

14     International Acclaim

15     Homecoming and Honours

16     Rouen Claims Alcock

17     Brown Remembers St John’s

18     Monuments and Tribute Flights

Appendix: Centenary Boardwalk Provides Easier Access to Vimy Landing Site

Bibliography

FOREWORD TO PREVIOUS EDITION

Wars are studied by historians because wars hasten progress, whether it is political, technical or social. This is particularly true of the First World War. Literacy and adult education for women and men, government supervision of industry and the conscription of workers and soldiers transformed Europe. The development of weapons also played a part in what became a worldwide conflict. In 1914 armies went to war with horses and swords. By 1918 warfare had been transformed by tanks, flame-throwers, radio sets, motor transport, poison gas and machine pistols not unlike those in use today. The fighting had transformed tactics, and made intellectual demands upon generals that very few could adequately meet.

Nothing changed more than aircraft. It had been the lightweight flying machines that won prizes at pre-war aviation gatherings. France’s single-seat Morane-Saulnier Type H monoplane with its 100hp engine had been the highlight of many air displays. By 1918 the strategic bomber was targeting German industrial towns.1

By war’s end the Vickers Vimy bombers, one of which John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown took across the Atlantic, had big and heavy Rolls-Royce Eagle VIII engines. By this time the rotary engine had become obsolete and the air-cooled engine had not yet demonstrated its true potential. So despite the added weight of the plumbing and the water needed for cooling, the Eagle with the Vickers airframe was probably the best combination available.

The Eagle owed its birth to the Mercedes engine. At the start of hostilities Rolls-Royce had taken it from a motor car on display in a showroom on Shaftesbury Avenue in London’s West End. The Rolls engineers examined it carefully and produced their V-12, which was rather like two Mercedes straight-six engines put together. But the Rolls engineers improved it. It had forged steel cylinders and Mercedes-style welded induction and exhaust ports. The overhead camshaft had two valves and two plugs for each cylinder. It had four Watford magnetos each supplying six cylinders, and four carburetors to distribute the fuel evenly. During the war the Eagle had been boosted from 225hp to over 360hp. This engine was used in flying boats, airships and bombers. It was a notable success story and brought Rolls-Royce a large proportion of its profits. The Vickers Vimy night bomber into which two Eagles were fitted had arrived just too late for operational service and everyone concerned with its production hoped to see it used for commercial aviation. An Atlantic crossing would bring exactly the sort of worldwide publicity that would promote the big aircraft into airline use.

However, Brendan Lynch’s story is not just about machines. It is the story of two men. John Alcock, the 23-year-old pilot, was the younger of the two. He started flying before the war and by the time he joined the Royal Naval Air Service he had logged many hours and flown numerous aircraft of various types. On a bombing mission in 1917 he was shot down over Suvla Bay and became a prisoner of the Turks.

Arthur Whitten Brown was older and the more sober of the pair. He had served on the Somme as an infantry officer before becoming a Royal Flying Corps pilot. Shot down in France, the leg injuries he suffered in the crash (the British would not permit their pilots to use parachutes) permanently disabled him. His lame leg caused him to be repatriated from his POW camp before war’s end. In Britain he worked on engine research for the Ministry of Munitions and then went to work for Vickers where, purely by chance, he met Alcock.

Both men knew the dangers and difficulties that the early aircraft brought, and both men had examined themselves and contemplated their future with the focus that imprisonment provides. And both men had given thought to transatlantic flight. It was a chance meeting but a perfect pairing: Alcock the bold, methodical, accomplished and very experienced pilot; and Brown, who was not only a dedicated navigator, but also functioned as what was later to be called the ‘flight engineer’. Brown’s mechanical knowledge was important at a time when engines – in particular their fuel flow and temperature – needed ceaseless attention.

The story of this historic flight has been shamefully neglected. It marked a moment when British aviation might have led the world. Alcock and Brown showed the way but the lesson was not learned. Britain, like other European powers, was content with low-performance engines on passenger aircraft that could do no better than short hops to South Africa and Australia; while in the 1930s American aircraft and airliners conquered both the Atlantic and the Pacific. Even in the 1950s Britain’s remarkable jet-engined Comet was forced to stop off at Gander, Newfoundland, because it could not make the full non-stop Atlantic crossing.

In these days of ruthless competition it is satisfying to record that Alcock and Brown were attractive and modest heroes who became close friends. They generously insisted that part of their monetary prize was distributed among Vickers support staff. Brendan Lynch, in this excellent book, tells their story with the skill of a dedicated researcher and the talent of a popular novelist. Yesterday We Were in America is a very fine book; I only wish I had written it.

Len Deighton

Copyright © Pluriform, 2008

1   Although, in Russia in 1913, Igor Sikorsky built and flew some remarkable four-engine aircraft, the 100hp Argus engines they typically used were virtually the same engines that the Berlin factory had been fitting into motor cars since 1902.

FOREWORD TO NEW EDITION

GROUP CAPTAIN A.J.H. ALCOCK, MBE, RAF, NEPHEW OF JOHN ALCOCK

The first non-stop Atlantic flight by my uncle Captain John Alcock and navigator Arthur Whitten Brown is a feat that still amazes me.

To guide an open-cockpit plane across the previously unassailable Atlantic wastes was a rare triumph of both flying and navigational ability. One mishap, one error would have meant an unknown watery grave for both men. An inspirational saga of courage against the odds, it was also a resounding triumph for the British aviation industry, which had earlier lagged behind its continental rivals.

After swapping school for a Manchester engineering apprenticeship, my uncle’s interest in aviation was sparked when he was allowed to work on a biplane. Shortly afterwards, he watched the end of the 1908 London-Manchester air race with my grandfather, whom he promptly informed that, one day, he also would fly.

Both my father and myself followed in his footsteps. One of the most poignant moments in my flying career was when I commemorated the 1919 flight’s sixtieth anniversary by piloting a specially painted Phantom jet from Canada to England with Flight Lieutenant W.N. Browne. We replicated the original crossing by overflying Newfoundland and crossing the Irish coast at Clifden.

We flew this route in three and a half hours in an air-conditioned cockpit at 28,000ft in smooth air above the weather. This compared to the sixteen hours the original Alcock and Brown had endured in their flimsy open machine, flying mostly below 10,000 ft in rough air and cloudy conditions.

John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown were modest men. Their trailblazing exploit was overshadowed by later more publicised flights. I agree with Len Deighton that the story of their great achievement has been shamefully neglected. Not only the first non-stop Atlantic flight, but also the first over any ocean and the longest distance ever covered by man up to that time.

This comprehensive centenary book will, I hope, help to redress the balance. And give Alcock and Brown their well-deserved proper place in the pantheon of aviation pioneers.

ALCOCK AND BROWN - RARE AVIATORS

STEVE FOSSETT, FROM AN INTERVIEW WITH THE AUTHOR

I could not compare my 2005 re-enactment of Alcock and Brown’s great flight to the ballooning or any of my other exploits.

This was a special project that always had a great fascination for me and a sense of historical purpose. It was in the context of trying to honour Alcock and Brown and to be aviators like them.

My recreation of the flight with Mark Rebholz was difficult. It was a long journey.

The greatest danger for us was the take-off at such high weight. Alcock and Brown had that danger plus the unknown of weather. Very little was known about wind and weather in 1919.

The Vimy fliers took a big risk of losing their lives. Like them, we had significant risk of engine failure that would require ditching. Today there is an excellent Rescue Control system, so our survival would not have been in doubt.

The Vimy proved a difficult aeroplane to fly. We learned the reality of aeronautics in those early days. And the full measure of Alcock and Brown’s achievement.

During the flight they got only three usable sextant shots. Yet, they flew and navigated the longest distance flown by man up to then. And, after sixteen hours and almost 1,900 miles, they landed just a few miles off course.

The first to cross an ocean non-stop, Alcock and Brown were rare aviators and real heroes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book is based on contemporary newspaper reports and Alcock and Brown’s first-hand accounts published in Badminton Magazine and the Royal Air Force and Aviation Record, and also on interviews with Steve Fossett and Harry Sullivan, the last surviving witness of the Vimy’s arrival, and the reminiscences of people in St John’s and also of Vickers’ staff. Another interviewee was Anthony Kilmister OBE, who shared his memories of ‘Uncle Teddy’ Whitten Brown (and who so kindly presented Brown’s flying boots and torch to Clifden Museum).

My task could not have been completed without the generous assistance of many other fine people on both sides of that ocean the fliers had spanned. I must thank Damian O’Brien and Maeve McKeever, Cultural Tourism & Heritage, Fáilte Ireland, who supported this project from day one, and Karen Ocana of Air Canada’s Corporate Communications, who enabled me to visit Newfoundland, from where the transatlantic fliers started. Also Air Canada pilot Capt. Steve Allard, Fg Off. Ben Lavergne and colleagues at St John’s Airport, who answered my many queries.

For allowing me the privilege of studying Arthur Whitten Brown’s chart, log book and letters I must thank the extremely helpful curator of the RAF Museum, Gordon Leith, and his equally enthusiastic colleague Peter Elliott, also Nina Burls and Laureen Woodard. Wg Cdr Guy Griffiths granted permission to quote from the diary of his great uncle and Arthur Whitten Brown’s former pilot, the gallant William Allcock.

Many thanks to the eminently knowledgeable Nick Forder, Air and Space Curator at Manchester Museum of Science and Industry; Jackie Tipping, Manchester City Council; Kath Lapsley and Richard Bond, Manchester Archives and Local Studies; Tony Lees, Greater Manchester County Record Office; Sarah Hartley, Manchester Evening News and Jo Abley, North West Film Archive. Few could match the patience and professionalism of the staff of many libraries, notably the British Library, the British Newspaper Library, London’s Science Museum Library, Dublin’s Trinity College, Gerry Lyne and his fantastic crew of Dublin’s National Library, and John Wells and Michael L. Wilson of Cambridge University Library.

Also, the following at the Memorial University of Newfoundland: Erin Alcock, Deborah Andrews, Debbie Edgecombe, Colleen Field, Shannon Gordon, Jackie Hillier and Linda White. My thanks also to Cal Best and Melanie Tucker at The Rooms Provincial Archives; Neachel Keeping and Helen Miller, City of St John’s Archives; John Griffin, Provincial Resource Library, and Alasdair Black, Admiralty House Museum, Mount Pearl. Also Lara Andrews, Canadian War Museum; Capt. B. Bond, Canadian Air Force Heritage and History; Ian Leslie, Canada Aviation Museum, and Daphne and Brian Williams of North Atlantic Aviation Museum.

A special thanks to Michelle Goodman, Andrew Nahum and Laura Singleton in the London Science Museum. ‘Health and Safety Rules’ precluded a close inspection of the historic Vimy’s cockpit. (Good job they did not rule in Alcock and Brown’s time!) All the more reason to thank pilots John Dodd and Clive Edwards of Edwards Brothers Aviation for inviting me into the cockpit of Steve Fossett’s Vimy, which enabled a true appreciation of the confined space from which the great Atlantic flight was directed.

Thanks to all those enthusiasts at the Vimy’s Weybridge birthplace, notably Brooklands Museum’s Julian Temple, John Pulford, Tony Hutchings, and Gerry Forristal. And Melvyn Hiscock for his invaluable first-hand experience of flying a replica Vimy. Also, Brian Riddle, Librarian, Royal Aeronautical Society; Mrs Diana King, Royal Aero Club; Emma Warren, Chertsey Museum; and Peter Collins, Peter Murton and Philippa Evans of the Imperial War Museum. And, for the memories of W.J. Richards, to Mrs Lyn Smith, Betty Wainwright and John Richards.

A sad and special thank you to the late Steve Fossett, who not only patiently answered my questions but also emailed me a few weeks before he disappeared. What an inspiration he was to so many! Also to Sir Richard Branson for his time, and his assistants Nicola Duguid and Helen Clarke.

In the USA I must thank David R. Holbrooke, a key figure in the Vimy recreation project. Also, Theo Elbert and Roger Mott, National Aviation Museum, Pensacola; Peter Jakab and Claire Brown of the Smithsonian Institution; the Washington Post’s Alex Remington; Alain Delaqueriere of the New York Times; and Barbara Whitener of the University of Louisville Library. And a descendant of Ernest Archdeacon who put Europe on the aviation map, the equally imaginative artist and photographer, Evelyn Archdeacon.

In St John’s, special thanks to Tourism & Cultures Donna Bishop; Brian Jones of The Telegram; aviation historian Nelson Sherren, who kindly drove me to see places associated with Alcock and Brown; ace photographer and Vimy flight enthusiast, Gary J. Hebbard; Lynn Robinson and Carla Foot of VOCM Radio; Mike Power, Jackie Bryant Cumby, Olga McWilliam Benson, John McWilliam and Robert Symonds, who supplied photographs and invaluable maps. Also Joe Bennett, St John’s International Airport Authority, and Don Tate, Grand Banks Genealogical Site.

As an old Ban the Bomb lag I must record particular thanks for their enthusiastic co-operation to the following Ministry of Defence and RAF personnel: Steve Willmot, Steve Lloyd, Seb Ritchie, Lt Col Nick Richardson, Wg Cdr Andy McGill, Capt. Roy Wilcockson, Steve Williams, Capt. Norry Wilson and Philip of RAF Lincolnshire. Also Glynn Griffith, RAF Millom Aviation & Military Museum Group; Clare Carr, RAF Museum, Cosford; Tim Pierce, RAF College, Cranwell; John Benjamin, Shuttleworth Collection and the curator of Bournemouth Aviation Museum. And, finally to another ace flier, Gp Capt. Tony Alcock, MBE, nephew of the great John Alcock.

Many thanks, too, for their encouragement and assistance to Aeroplane Monthly editor Michael Oakey; Phil Groves and Lisa O’Brien, BAA; historian Alan Gallop; Barry Guess, BAE Systems Heritage; and Robert Gardner of Circadian (does anyone know more about propellers?). Also Gary Carr of Buyout Footage; Olive Guest, Jonathan Clowes Ltd; Steve Hynard, Hampshire Record Office; Carol Linton, Hampshire County Council Archives; Gill Arnott, Hampshire Museums Service; Doreen Netherton and Hilary Brenton, Dover Library; Michael Carter, Centre for Kentish Studies; Christel Pobgee, Kent Libraries; David Bristow, Fordingbridge; Rev Mike Bissett, St Margaret’s Church, Penn; Iain MacFarlaine, Francois Prins and David Hodgkinson. And Alan Flint and Bill Croydon of historic Eastchurch on the Isle of Sheppey, which, in July 2009, celebrated the centenary of Moore Brabazon’s historic first flight by a British pilot in Britain.

In Swansea, thanks to Flt Lt Phillip Flowers, Harold Hughes, William George Sutton, Phil Treseder, Jacqueline Taylor, Jayne Watts, Mrs Gwen Williams and Emma Jones of the South Wales Evening Post. In Glasgow, Norry Wilson and Heather Stuckert, Evening Times; Lyn Morgan, Henry Sullivan and Maureen Wilbraham of the Mitchell Library. Also Helen Watson of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh, and C. Pinchen of Tyne & Wear Archives Service.

In Dublin I particularly appreciate the help and advice of biographer Peter Costello and Joe Collins of Hodges Figgis bookshop. Also publisher Antony Farrell of Lilliput Press and colleague Carolyn Strobel, who allowed me to quote from Alannah Heather’s wonderful Errislannan memoir. Thanks also to David Givens of Liffey Press, John McMahon, and Noel Lewis who read the manuscript, Colman and Dympna McMahon and Dympna O’Halloran for their consistent support, and the equally helpful Tony Byrne and Brian O’Neill of Bygone Days. And the late unforgettable Peter Stevens, with whom I often discussed the Vimy flight in the old Horsehoe Bar.

Thanks, too, to Denis McCormack at Multitech Computers, and to Chris, Conri, Gary, Sean, Stefan, and Nohema of Reads. Also to Brian Lynch of RTE, Nigel Leeming in Cork and Paolo, Matteo, Andrea and all at Bar Italia for sunshine replenishment at low moments.

In Connemara, thanks to Clifden Chamber of Commerce president Gerry Keane, Aidan O’Halloran, Michele Hehir, Aine O’Neill, the Station House Museum, Clare Hickey and Sorcha O’Sullivan of Connemara Flowers and, particularly, to James and the late Harry and Peggy Sullivan of Sullivan’s Supermarket. Locals are to be commended for resurfacing the track to the Derrygimla landing site. Hopefully those entrepreneurs who considered concreting the historic bog will heed David Bellamy’s words: ‘The people of Ireland inherited this richness from the past. Please don’t steal it from future generations.’ A very special thanks to David and those environmentalists who helped to preserve one of the world’s most important aviation sites.

I particularly appreciate the help of three Ballyconneely enthusiasts, Tom McWilliam, Gerry O’Malley, and historian Marty Conneely. Thanks to Marty, the Vimy landing cairn is now highlighted for aviation pilgrims. With its proximity to the Derrygimla landing site, perhaps Ballyconneely would be the ideal place for an Alcock and Brown Museum?

Thanks also to those museums who assisted in my vain search for the missing Vimy propeller. Made by Dashwood Lang (G1184.NG/Series 273A/DRG.A54/330H.PRollsRoyce) and presented by Arthur Whitten Brown to Cranwell College, it was allegedly displayed in the RAF Holborn Careers Centre up to 1990. One can only hope that it awaits identification in some store or mess.

A final thank you to Margie for sowing the idea for this book, and for her dinner-time patience while I wrestled a recalcitrant paragraph. Also to my late parents, Patrick and Siobhan, who first told me of the legend of Alcock and Brown. And to an old motor racing pal, Mark Hughes, and his equally indefatigable colleague and multiple author, Jonathan Falconer, who oversaw the book’s production. Their ardour (not to mention impeccable taste!) was a considerable encouragement.

Sincere apologies to anyone whom I may have missed. And a hearty Slainte to all who helped me in what I consider was a good cause and to which I earnestly hope I have done justice, the incredible achievement of John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown. What an inspiration they provide in these days when man seems to have been reduced to a compliant cipher on a balance sheet.

I hope that their story stirs you as much as it still does me!

Brendan Lynch

INTRODUCTION TO PREVIOUS EDITION

One of the most moving experiences of my life was to witness the arrival in Ireland of Steve Fossett and Mark Rebholz on 3 July 2005 after their re-enactment of Alcock and Brown’s first non-stop Atlantic flight of June 1919.

Huge crowds had assembled at Ballyconneely golf course from mid-afternoon on that Sunday. Irish, British, Canadian, and US flags flapped in the fitful breeze. Shrieking gulls dived and wheeled as if in winged celebration.

A cheer spread across the dunes as the replica open-cockpit Vimy was spotted fluttering in from the ocean. An even mightier roar reached up as it finally passed directly overhead at 200ft. Its grey wings assumed gigantic proportions; one worried about its pilot’s ability to combat the wayward gusts.

Arms waved, scarves flew; it was a moment of drama and history that none present would ever forget. ‘Imagine that flew all the way across the Atlantic,’ an incredulous youngster said as he doffed his baseball cap, a comment that had also greeted the original 1919 fliers.

As the aeroplane lined up for landing, it seemed to lurch and stand in the air. Then it began its descent. The breeze clutched at those broad wings. The pilot fought for control. Spectators held their breaths.

Dropping rather than gliding, the four forward wheels on each side bounced gently on the ground. The wheels touched again, the Vimy stopped within yards.

Steve Fossett, his head just visible over the port side of the cockpit, cut the twin engines. Three or four minutes later both men rose stiffly from the cockpit. Avuncular in his yellow survival suit, Fossett smiled and shook hands with the towering figure of navigator and co-pilot Mark Rebholz. Spectators stared at the men who had crossed the mighty Atlantic in that flimsy machine. There was hardly a dry eye on the course.

‘Alcock and Brown’s story has never been properly related,’ I turned to Margie, as we paid our respects to the tethered aeroplane before leaving.

‘Why don’t you do it, then?’ she enquired.

That was where this book started. At Ballyconneely golf course, within sound of the Atlantic breakers, at seven on that momentous summer evening.

I envied Steve Fossett and Mark Rebholz as they headed for rest after their eighteen hours travail. My work was only starting, and it would take eighteen months!

INTRODUCTION TO CENTENARY EDITION

Seventy years since I first heard the legend of Alcock and Brown around an Irish fireside, I am still as moved and uplifted by their incredible achievement. To bridge the wild Atlantic in an open-cockpit machine and with primitive instruments was, as Tony Alcock alludes in his foreword, a triumph of navigation, flying skill and rare courage.

My thanks to History Press for publishing this centenary edition of my book on the flight and, in particular, to commissioning editor Amy Rigg and equally lynx-eyed project editor Jezz Palmer. Thanks to Tony Alcock for his foreword, to Janet Hearn-Gillham and David for their help and enthusiasm and their friends, Virginia and Alan Payne, who supplied John Alcock’s first Atlantic Airmail letter, which he carried with him in the Vimy.

Thanks also to Clifden’s Shane Joyce for his invaluable information and efforts to pinpoint the Vimy’s Connemara landing site, to Mary O’Connell of the town’s Station House Museum and to Ann Evans of the Jonathan Clowes Agency. Also to Billy Foyle of Dolphin Beach Hotel and to Stephen Foyle of Foyle’s Hotel, Clifden, where Alcock and Brown were treated to a reception by the local Council before their departure for London.

I must also extend thanks to Frances Mobbs and Vera Beames, who introduced me to Mary Rhodes and her Sweethope Cottage book, about the Kennedy family home. Mary deserves special thanks for rescuing Brown’s diary and memorabilia. Sadly, Brown’s father-in-law, Major David Kennedy, was killed during a daylight bomb attack on High Street Kensington on 19 November 1940. Four years later, the Brown’s only child, 24-year-old Arthur Brown Junior, was shot down over Arnhem, a tragedy from which his parents never fully recovered.

In this special flight centenary year, 2019, I hope that Manchester authorities in particular will extend themselves – as Alcock and Brown did in 1919 – to celebrate the incredible achievement of their local aviation pioneers. Renaming the city’s airport ‘Alcock and Brown Airport, Manchester’ in their honour would be a most appropriate tribute.

1

FREE OF THE PRISON OF GRAVITY

Everyone who crosses between Europe and America owes them a debt. But how did they do it in that flimsy machine?

Harry Sullivan

Seven-year-old Harry Sullivan was in bed with measles in Clifden, on the west coast of Ireland, on the damp morning of Sunday, 15 June 1919. He recalls:

Because I was sick, I wasn’t allowed to go to morning Mass with the rest of the family. It wasn’t long after the big flu epidemic which had killed more people than the recently ended Great War. My parents weren’t taking any chances.

They had hardly left when I heard this terrible noise. It seemed to be coming from the sky. I was as curious as I was scared. Measles or not, I rushed outside to investigate. I was just in time to see this greyish-coloured machine swooping over the main street. Its two propellers were whizzing around and its huge wings nearly touched the top of the church. I was amazed. I had heard of flying ’planes but I had never seen one before. I watched as it roared away towards the bog under the low cloud, its wings swaying up and down.

The noise was very loud, I could hear it for a long time. It must have been awful for the men inside. Where had the machine come from, where was it going? I would have something to tell my parents when they returned – but how could I tell them without saying I had gone out in the street?

Harry did not know it, but he had witnessed the conclusion of one of the most significant and dramatic flights in aviation history. The pilot of the Vickers Vimy aeroplane was John Alcock, his navigator was Arthur Whitten Brown. Eight minutes after the youngster saw them, the two Englishmen landed beside the Marconi radio station in nearby Derrygimla bog. Deafened by a broken engine exhaust, they had lost their radio and endured iced-up controls and a near-fatal stall. Completely exposed to the elements in their open-cockpit biplane, they had survived fog, snow and virtually continuous cloud to become the first persons to fly the Atlantic ocean non-stop. Yet, navigating blind for most of the way, they landed just 20 miles off target after their 16hr marathon of 1,880 miles, the longest distance ever flown by man.

Staff from the Marconi station struggled across the swampy ground to rescue them. At first they did not believe that the fliers had crossed the Atlantic. ‘Yesterday we were in America,’ John Alcock vainly reiterated. It took a sealed mailbag from St John’s, Newfoundland, to convince the Marconi men. Their cheers rang across the infinity of greeny scrub and boggy pools as they escorted the fliers to their warm station. But this was nothing to the acclaim that greeted Alcock and Brown on their triumphant return home via Galway, Dublin, and Holyhead. A quarter of a million people lined their train route and the streets of London, to welcome the men who a short time previously had languished in prisoner-of-war camps. Within a week of wading through Derrygimla, they braved the carpets of Windsor Castle to be knighted by King George V.

Alcock and Brown’s achievement had a major psychological impact. It helped war-weary Britons turn a corner from the recent catastrophic conflict and the world’s most devastating epidemic, the Spanish flu of 1918–19. Emerging triumphant from an Irish bog, the fliers had made a giant step out of the shadow of war and pestilence to reassert man’s potential. Their success redirected attention to the future and opened a window to previously unconsidered possibilities. It inspired hope that man and technology could combine to build a brighter more secure world. That world had suddenly become a much smaller and, hopefully, safer place. Brown himself optimistically wrote: ‘The aeroplane may well become a greater influence towards internationalisation than a signed covenant of the League of nations.’

Similar adulation greeted the epic solo ocean crossings by Charles Lindbergh in 1927 and Amelia Earhart in 1932. But, courageous as these aviators were, their flights were made in enclosed cockpits, with the advantage of superior navigational and meteorological aids. They had the benefit of lighter, more reliable and more efficient engines. Lindbergh carried little over half of Alcock and Brown’s enormous handicap of 865gal of fuel.

Eschewing heroics and hype, Alcock and Brown had braved the unknown in a comparatively primitive machine wide open to the elements. Their success against the odds in completing the world’s first epic aerial voyage was the most notable aviation feat after the Wright Brothers’ earliest powered flights. First to bridge the Atlantic non-stop, the Vimy pair laid the foundations of worldwide travel for everyman a mere sixteen years after the Wrights first staggered into the air in a powered aeroplane. They are arguably two of the greatest and most unsung heroes of the early 20th century.

Alcock and Brown’s unification of the continents was the logical outcome of man’s obsession with transport, which dated from the invention of the wheel in Mesopotamia around 4000 BC. The chariot increased man’s speed and his control of space and territory. Progression to four wheels relieved his shoulders of carrying burdens. The first dugout boat enabled him to navigate water; slowly in the beginning, until sail and then steam hastened his progress. The proliferation of the bicycle in the late nineteenth century provided a foretaste of the possibilities of individual long-distance transportation. After the railway revolution, the internal combustion engine and the automobile introduced the single most important development in transport and social mobility since the wheel. Only the air remained to be conquered.

The philosopher Socrates insisted, ‘Man must rise above the Earth – to the top of the atmosphere and beyond – for only thus will he fully understand the world in which he lives.’ Two thousand years later Arthur Whitten Brown reiterated the dream of flight:

I believe that ever since man, but recently conscious of his own existence, saw the birds, he has desired to emulate them. Among the myths and fables of every race are tales of human flight. The paradise of most religions is reached through the air, and through the air many gods and prophets have passed from earth to their respective heavens.

Man marvelled at the freedom of the birds and their power to go where he could not. He could catch birds and he could tame them, but he could only watch while they effortlessly soared to heights denied to him. In Greek mythology the Athenian craftsman Daedalus made wings of wax and feathers so that he and his son Icarus could escape from King Minos of Crete. They flew away, but Icarus rose too near the sun, which melted the wax of his wings. He fell into the sea and was drowned, and his father buried him on the Aegean island now known as Ikaria.

In real life, the early Chinese were the first to venture into the air, with unmanned kites. Made from bamboo and silk, these are said to have been flown in China 3,000 years ago. The devices were used to carry messages into the heavens to the gods. One was used for observation during a city siege in 200 BC. A man-carrying kite was allegedly flown in China in AD 559. On his return to Europe, Marco Polo described how kites were constructed and controlled.

Balloons provided man’s earliest documented means of leaving the ground, and greatly stimulated interest in flight. Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier experimented with hot-air balloons in 1782. Pilatre de Rozier and the Marquis d’Arlandre made the first manned flight a year later from Versailles, but de Rozier became aviation’s earliest casualty when he was killed while attempting to cross the English Channel. Italian embassy employee Vincent Lunardi made the first ascent in Britain in September 1784. The Channel was crossed the following year by Jean-Pierre Blanchard and his American passenger, Dr John Jefferies. Ballooning became popular with the aristocracy and the adventurous, but as time went by the limitations of balloons became tiresome. Without motive power there was no directional control, their operators were slaves to the winds. How could one achieve more controllable flight?

Thinkers and scientists such as Leonardo da Vinci long pondered the secret of heavier-than-air flight. Philip Hitti claims in his History of the Arabs that Ibn Firnas was the first man in history to make a scientific attempt at flying. Commemorated by a statue in Baghdad and the Ibn Firnas moon crater, the Cordoban inventor and poet allegedly flew the equivalent of a modern hang-glider in Andalusia in AD 877. Leonardo da Vinci made over 100 drawings illustrating his theories on bird and mechanical flight. His ornithopter (flapping-wing) flying machines were never built, and neither was the vertical-screw design that presaged the modern helicopter. Inspired by Leonardo, Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi is said to have glided across the Bosphorus from Istanbul’s Galata Tower in 1638.

One of the earliest to begin to unlock the secret of heavier-than-air flight was a remarkable English Baronet, Sir George Cayley, Member of Parliament for Scarborough, who lived from 1773 to 1857. He prophesied:

I am well convinced that ‘Aerial Navigation’ will form a most prominent feature in the progress of civilisation ... and that we shall be able to transport ourselves and our families, and their goods and chattels, more securely by air than by water, and with a velocity of from 20 to 100 miles per hour.

The key to flight is lift, the ability to raise an object against the pull of gravity. To overcome an aeroplane’s weight its wing must generate this opposing force, which is produced by the motion of the machine through the air. Cayley discovered that air passing over a curved surface travels faster than the air passing across its undersurface. The faster airflow over a cambered, bird-like wing creates an area of low pressure above the curved section (or aerofoil), which generates lift, supplemented to a small degree by increased pressure on the underside. Modern delinquents regularly demonstrate this when they put a hand, palm downward, out of a car window. The hand immediately and wondrously rises, thanks to the lift generated by the different speed of the air currents above and below it. Racing cars use aerofoils in reverse to create downthrust, which improves traction and enables them to corner at scarcely credible speeds.

In half a century of experimenting Cayley established the basic forces acting on an aeroplane: lift against weight, and thrust against drag. He summarised the challenge as ‘to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of the air’. He suggested the use of a cruciform tail as a means of obtaining longitudinal and lateral stability.

After experimenting with a kite modified into a glider, the first device to establish the basic format of an aeroplane, Cayley followed further models with the first gliders to carry a boy, and then man, successfully. Britain’s earliest licensed pilot, J.T.C. Moore-Brabazon (later Lord Brabazon of Tara) insisted: ‘It was with the glider that Sir George really laid his claim to fame, and it was because he worked along these lines that he was rightly named the father of aeronautics. The modern aeroplane is only a glider pushed along by a motor.’

Cayley never found a suitable power source. His gunpowder engine failed, and steam engines were much too heavy and cumbersome. The internal combustion engine, which powered the Wright brothers’ aeroplanes, was not developed during his lifetime. But, fifty years before the brothers, his gliders accomplished the world’s first manned heavier-than-air flights across Yorkshire’s Brompton Dale. The passenger of his man-carrier, coachman John Appleby, protested: ‘Please, Sir George, I wish to give notice. I was hired to drive, not to fly.’

Californian John Joseph Montgomery built a glider that was destroyed after its first take-off in 1883, and his subsequent machines were also unsuccessful. It was Germany’s Otto Lilienthal who made a major contribution to heavier-than-air flight, making over 2,000 hang-glider flights. He was experimenting with a small compressed-gas engine of his own design when he was killed in a glider crash in 1896. Lilienthal influenced Bath-born engineer Percy Sinclair Pilcher. Had Pilcher procured some modest backing he could well have become the first person to make a powered flight in his new and untested triplane, though he would have faced difficult problems of control. But the 33-year-old Englishman died in a Leicestershire field in 1899, while making a towed demonstration flight in his Hawk glider. (A modern, powered reproduction of the triplane flew for nearly a minute and a half in 2003, longer than the Wright brothers’ longest flight on 17 December 1903.)

Octave Chanute, a Chicago railroad engineer and bridge-builder, had also influenced Pilcher. He improved upon Otto Lilienthal’s designs, evolving a biplane hang-glider. His example, plus Lilienthal’s experiments and writings, in turn influenced the brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright of Dayton, Ohio, in the USA. Wilbur confessed in a letter to Chanute: ‘For some years I have been afflicted with the belief that flight is possible to man. The disease has increased in severity and I feel it will soon cost me an increased amount of money, if not my life.’

Supporters of Gustave Whitehead claimed that the Bavarian-born builder of gliders and powered aeroplanes flew a bat-winged powered machine in Connecticut in 1901, but there is no documentary evidence or even photographs of the machine to confirm this. Thus the methodical Wright brothers have been recognised as the first to make successful powered, sustained and controlled flights. They became interested in aviation in 1878, when their father gave them a toy helicopter propelled by a rubber band. Orville was a successful cycle racer, and the brothers decided in 1896 to take advantage of the new cycling craze by manufacturing machines themselves. Their business flourished and ensured them sufficient income to indulge their passion for flight. They built their first glider in 1899. Fortuitously, a suitable power source was now available, the internal-combustion petrol engine that drove the fledgling automobile.

The Wrights’ cycle manufacturing experience encouraged their constant search for lightness combined with strength, and enabled them to design and machine parts for their experimental gliders. Without financial backing or government support they spent years on patient gliding experiments, and even constructed a wind tunnel in which to test wing sections. Wilbur Wright noted:

It was, in fact, the first wind tunnel in which small models of wings were tested and their lifting properties accurately noted. From all the data that Orville and I accumulated into tables, an accurate and reliable wing could finally be built.

Riding bicycles and observing birds had informed the Wrights on banking and turning. They focused on the crucial issue of flight control. A rear rudder managed left or right turns, while a horizontal rudder, or elevator, controlled pitch, nose up or down. Wilbur’s implementation of wing warping, a twisting motion of the wings to produce lateral or roll control, was the final keystone. Having mastered the basics of control in their gliders, the brothers supplied the outstanding ingredient of power by building their own four-cylinder engine, designing their own efficient propellers, and incorporating both in a new biplane. On the morning of 17 December 1903 they soared into history with four short powered flights on the sandy Atlantic shores of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. It was a monumental advance for the human species. For the first time in his long earth habitation, man had broken free from the prison of gravity.

The Wrights provided the New York Herald with the earliest first-hand description of flying:

Our most acute sensations are during the first minute of flight, while we are soaring into the air and gaining the levels at which we wish to sail. Then for the next five minutes, our concentration is fixed on the management of the levers to see that everything is working all right. But after that, the management of the flyer becomes almost automatic, with no more thought required than a bicycle rider gives to the control of his machine. But when you know, after the first few moments, that the whole mechanism is working perfectly, the sensation is so keenly delightful as to be almost beyond description. Nobody who has not experienced it for himself can realise it. It is the realisation of a dream so many persons have had of floating in the air. More than anything else, the sense is one of perfect peace, mingled with an excitement that strains every nerve to the utmost.

Officials of Washington’s Smithsonian Institution claimed for many years that the first aeroplane capable of powered flight had been made by its third secretary, Samuel Pierpoint Langley. But his grant-aided Aerodrome had fallen, rather than flown, into the Potomac River in October 1903. (Orville Wright, in disgust, later presented the historic 1903 Wright aeroplane to London’s Science Museum, where it remained for twenty years until the Smithsonian recanted.) By 1905 the Wrights were making flights of over half-an-hour’s duration. Inexplicably, the sceptical US government declined their offer of a test machine, and America lost its lead in world aviation. Officialdom concurred with the opinion expressed in a 1906 comment in The Times newspaper of London: ‘All attempts at artificial aviation are not only dangerous to life but doomed to failure from an engineering standpoint.’

A combination of French and Celtic flair soon ensured that the momentum of aeronautical development moved to Europe. Pioneer Brazilian aviator Alberto Santos-Dumont said of prime mover, Ernest Archdeacon: ‘He was one of the most remarkable men I have ever met, his mind ever groping forward to discoveries and inventions, many of which have been fulfilled.’

Archdeacon was a wealthy lawyer whose forebears had come from Waterford in Ireland. He set numerous French balloon and motoring records, including a steam tricycle run of 286 miles with Leon Serpollet in 1890 and a class win for Delahaye in the 1896 Paris–Marseilles–Paris motor race. After hearing a lecture by Octave Chanute in Paris in April 1903, in which the work of the Wrights was described and illustrated, he immediately set about converting France to aviation. He exhorted readers of La Locomotion: ‘Will the homeland of the Montgolfiers have the shame of allowing that ultimate discovery of aerial science, which is assuredly imminent, and which will constitute the highest scientific revolution that has been seen since the beginning of the world, to be realised abroad?’

The Parisian co-founded the Aero-Club de France in 1904 and launched an Aviation Committee, which concentrated on heavier-than-air flight, as distinct from balloons and dirigibles. He initiated a series of prizes to encourage aviation. In October 1906 Santos-Dumont became the hero of his adopted Paris when he won the prize for the first powered flight in Europe. Archdeacon also encouraged the efforts of aeroplane manufacturers and engine makers. Leon Levavasseur’s compact 25 and 50hp motors soon played a major role in establishing European superiority.

Archdeacon worked with the Voisin brothers and former racing driver, Henry Farman, with whom he made France’s first 1km flight in 1908. It was Farman who followed the lead of another French pioneer, Robert Esnault-Pelterie, and adopted the ailerons that eventually replaced the Wright brothers’ wing-warping system. Thousands flocked to see the Wrights demonstrate their latest machine at Le Mans that same year. But by 1909, thanks to Archdeacon’s determination, Europe led the way with more stable and controllable aeroplanes. ‘Remarkable in many ways and before its time in conception’, was how Atlantic aviator John Alcock subsequently described the later-model Farman in which he learned to fly.

Luckily for Britain, Dublin-born media magnate Lord Northcliffe was among those who witnessed Santos-Dumont’s historic 1906 flights in Paris. He immediately grasped the potential of the aeroplane, and its future defence implications for Britain. He insisted in a leading article in the Daily Mail: ‘The success of M Santos-Dumont has an international significance. They are not mere dreamers who hold that the time is at hand when air power will be an even more important thing than sea power.’

He warned rising politician Winston Churchill:

A man with a heavier-than-air machine has flown. It does not matter how far he has flown. He has shown what can be done. In a year’s time, mark my words, that fellow will be flying over here from France. Britain is no longer an island. Nothing so important has happened for a very long time. We must get hold of this thing, and make it our own.

Governments and the public continued to be sceptical of the strange men in their flying machines. The aero dreamers were subjects of derision for media such as the London Opinion, which published a limerick in 1907:

There was a young man of Mark Lane,

Who constructed an aeroplane.

It flew, so we heard,

Like a beautiful bird,

His tombstone is pretty but plain.

But the success of a week-long international aviation meeting at Reims in August 1909 marked a turning point and heralded the arrival of the aeroplane as a practical means of transport. Over 200,000 watched Louis Blériot demonstrate a machine that could carry two passengers. Louis Paulhan established a distance record of 82 miles in his Voisin. Two days later Henry Farman extended this to 112 miles. America’s Glenn Curtiss set a new speed record of 47mph.

Lord Northcliffe attended the Reims meeting with Britain’s Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George. Replicating Archdeacon’s zeal, Northcliffe began a crusade that was to prove a major influence on British aircraft development. Born Alfred Harmsworth in 1865, he had edited Bicycling News before founding the bestselling Daily Mail newspaper in 1896. Based on the style of US papers, it had banner headlines, shorter more readable stories, and a special section for women. Northcliffe increasingly used the Mail to propagate his interest in science and aeronautics. He met Wilbur Wright, and appointed Harry Harper to the Daily Mail as the world’s first aeronautical correspondent. Alone among Britain’s public figures, he cajoled the British government into matching French and German aviation progress.

Most significantly, Northcliffe launched a series of prizes that caught the public imagination and stimulated the fledgling aircraft industry. Although this was regarded by some observers as a circulation gimmick, he dramatically put aviation at the forefront of national discussion with the following announcement:

We desire to remove the impression that England is not in the van of progress in the new science, and we are anxious that the business of constructing aeroplanes, which will no doubt in the future be as large as that of motor-car making, shall be assisted as rapidly as possible.

The proprietors of the Daily Mail therefore hereby undertake to pay the sum of £10,000 to the first person, being the member of an established aero club, who flies in one day from a given spot within five miles of the London office of the Daily Mail to a given spot within five miles of the Manchester office of the Daily Mail. This offer is made without conditions or restrictions of any kind except those mentioned.

Northcliffe also offered £1,000 each to the first Briton to fly a circular mile in an all-British aeroplane, and to the first person to fly the English Channel. Aviation was still only in its infancy, but in July 1909 Blériot took the Daily Mail’s Channel prize in his No. XI monoplane. He lyricised on landing near Dover Castle after the 35min flight: ‘The most beautiful dream that has haunted the heart of man since Icarus is today reality.’ In April 1910 the competition to win the prize for the first flight from London to Manchester excited national interest. The public became increasingly air conscious. Among the thousands who stayed up all night to see the dawn arrival of winner Louis Paulhan was young Manchester engineering apprentice John Alcock.